tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-41675856658650202652024-03-19T07:20:37.550+01:00Random Idea EnglishThis blog is aimed mainly at advanced students of English as a foreign / second language, although it will hopefully also be of some interest to teachers. I intend it to be a mishmash of lessons, exercises and the occasional opinionated rant about the English language.
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.comBlogger313125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-83722053010965552252022-03-21T18:47:00.002+01:002022-03-21T18:47:48.766+01:00<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">As well as being an adjective (<span class="bQ">a pretty girl, pretty flowers</span>) etc, <span class="bQ">pretty</span> can be an adverb</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">modifying an adjective:</span>
<ul style="list-style:none;">
<li>She's pretty intelligent for her age.<li>
<li>I'm pretty sure the film starts at 8.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><span class="nml">modifying an adverb:</span>
<ul style="list-style:none;">
<li>The meeting went pretty smoothly, all things considered.<li>
<li>They've pretty obviously left.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><span class="nml">in expressions with <span class="bQ">much</span>, <span class="bQ">nearly</span> and <span class="bQ">well</span></span>
<ul style="list-style:none;">
<li>That's pretty much all I've got to say.<li>
<li>The dog's eaten pretty well all our sandwiches!</li>
<li>Don't worry, we're pretty nearly there.<li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><span class="nml">and in a couple of idioms:</span>
<ul style="list-style:none;">
<li>Which do you think is better? - I don't know, they're pretty much of a muchness.<li>
<li>With a string of hits in recent years, for the moment the band are sitting pretty.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Its meanings include: <span class="bQ">almost, rather, somewhat, more or less</span>. In his landmark dictionary of 1755, Samuel Johnson refers to it as "less than very", although the difference is sometimes pretty small.</div>
<div class="m10">Most sources suggest that its use is rather informal, but I was somewhat surprised when one of my younger students told me that his school English teacher had banned it in the classroom - <span class="bQ">'It's alright among your friends, but not here.'</span></div>
<div class="m10">Like <span class="bQ">really, pretty</span> is often more expressive than the rather bland <span class="bQ">very</span>, but apparently some people find it too colloquial. There are others, however, who take a rather broader view:</div>
<div class="cite4">The qualifying adverb pretty, meaning “fairly or moderately” has been in general use since the late 16th century. Although most common in informal speech and writing, it is far from restricted to them, and often is less stilted than alternatives such as relatively, moderately, and quite. <p>Random House Abridged - at Dictionary.com</div>
<div class="m10">What I'm interested here is not so much the arguments for or against the adverb <span class="bQ">pretty</span>, but whether those usually regarded as the greatest British writers shared the disdain apparently felt by some. And the answer seems to be a resounding 'No!'. It appears in the writings of many of the greatest writers of the English language, across four centuries, and although many examples appear in spoken dialogues, we also find it being used in the main narrative, or by the narrator. And its use is not restricted to novels, being used by both Darwin and Ruskin, in what have become classics of non-fiction. </div>
<div class="m10">Can something that's good enough for the likes of Shakespeare, Defoe and Austen, really be so harmful in a secondary school classroom?</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Seventeenth century</h3>
<ul class="q">
<li class="lhdr">William Shakespeare - As You Like It 3:5 - First Folio 1623</li>
<li>Tis pretty sure, and very probable,<br />
That eyes that are the frailst, and softest things</li>
<li class="lhdr">John Dryden - Marriage-á-la-Mode 1673</li>
<li>But here comes Rhodophil. It is pretty odd that my mistress should so much resemble his</li>
<li>Tis a pretty odd kind of game this, where each of us plays for double stakes</li>
<li class="lhdr">John Bunyan - The Pilgrim's Progress 1678</li>
<li>You are pretty near the business, for the bottom of all is for want of a change in their mind and will</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Eighteenth century</h3>
<ul class="q">
<li class="lhdr">Daniel Defoe - Robinson Crusoe 1719</li>
<li>It was my lot first of all to fall into pretty good company in London</li>
<li>for the wind began to blow pretty fresh in the morning</li>
<li>Friday began to talk pretty well, and understand the names of almost everything I had occasion to call for</li>
<li class="lhdr">Daniel Defoe - Moll Flanders 1722</li>
<li>I had pretty good luck thus far, and I made several adventures more</li>
<li>It was after those adventures in Ireland, and when she was pretty well known in that country, that she left Dublin and came over to England</li>
<li>However, during this interval I confined myself pretty much at home</li>
<li class="lhdr">Jonathan Swift - Gulliver's Travels 1726</li>
<li>I paced the diameter and circumference several times barefoot, and, computing by the scale, measured it pretty exactly.</li>
<li>after which we had fair weather, but still with a pretty strong gale from the west</li>
<li>I passed the night under the shelter of a rock, strewing some heath under me, and slept pretty well.</li>
<li class="lhdr">Samuel Richardson - Pamela 1740</li>
<li>why, all this too I have got pretty tolerably at my finger's end, as they say;</li>
<li>I have, sir, ... followed pretty much the form you have prescribed for me, in the letter to Mrs. Jervis;</li>
<li>I had hardly time to transcribe these letters, though, writing so much, I write pretty fast,</li>
<li class="lhdr">Henry Fielding - Tom Jones 1749</li>
<li>Mrs Partridge was pretty well satisfied that she had condemned her husband without cause</li>
<li>which somewhat qualified her hatred towards him; though of this likewise she had a pretty moderate share</li>
<li>for the water was luckily pretty shallow in that part</li>
<li class="lhdr">Laurence Sterne - Tristram Shandy 1759-67</li>
<li>observing such an equal tenor in the distribution of her favours, as to bring them, in those points, pretty near to a level with each other;</li>
<li>so that if you are able to give but a clear description of the nature of the one, you may form a pretty exact notion of the genius and character of the other.</li>
<li>one may safely suppose he meant pretty near the same thing.</li>
<li class="lhdr">Laurence Sterne - A Sentimental Journey 1768</li>
<li>so that being pretty much unprepossessed, there must have been grounds for what struck me the moment I cast my eyes over the parterre</li>
<li>I had wrote myself pretty well out of conceit with the désobligeant,</li>
<li>Oliver Goldsmith - The Vicar of Wakefield 1766</li>
<li>it seemed to me pretty plain, that they had more of love than matrimony in them</li>
<li>but as I was pretty much unacquainted with the present state of the stage, I demanded who were the present theatrical writers in vogue</li>
<li>His time is pretty much taken up in keeping his relation, who is a little melancholy, in spirits</li>
<li class="lhdr">Tobias Smollett - Humphry Clinker 1771</li>
<li>The Square, though irregular, is, on the whole, pretty well laid out, spacious, open, and airy</li>
<li>but Humphry himself was by this time pretty well rid of all apprehensions of being hanged;</li>
<li>but not satisfied with this booty, which was pretty considerable, the rascal insisted upon rifling her of her ear-rings and necklace</li>
<li class="lhdr">Boswell's Life of Johnson 1791</li>
<li>He was a pretty good Latin scholar, and a citizen so creditable as to be made one of the magistrates of Lichfield;</li>
<li>Johnson used to be a pretty frequent visitor at the house of Mr. Richardson, authour of Clarissa</li>
<li>His Majesty enquired if he was then writing any thing. He answered, he was not, for he had pretty well told the world what he knew, and must now read to acquire more knowledge.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Nineteenth Century</h3>
<h4>Jane Austen</h4>
<ul class="q">
<li class="lhdr">Sense and Sensibility 1811</li>
<li>"Well, Marianne," said Elinor, as soon as he had left them, "for ONE morning I think you have done pretty well.</li>
<li>"Edward's love for me," said Lucy, "has been pretty well put to the test</li>
<li>But now there is one good thing, we shall be able to meet, and meet pretty often <span class="ng">(Lucy)</span></li>
<li class="lhdr">Pride and Prejudice 1813</li>
<li>I never wish to leave it; and when I am in town it is pretty much the same <span class="ng">(Bingley)</span></li>
<li>As she spoke she observed him looking at her earnestly; and the manner in which he immediately asked her why she supposed Miss Darcy likely to give them any uneasiness, convinced her that she had somehow or other got pretty near the truth <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li>There is but such a quantity of merit between them; just enough to make one good sort of man; and of late it has been shifting about pretty much. <span class="ng">(Elizabeth)</span></li>
<li>Having been frequently in company with him since her return, agitation was pretty well over. (narrator)</li>
<li>"I say no more than the truth, and everybody will say that knows him," replied the other. Elizabeth thought this was going pretty far; <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li>You know pretty well, I suppose, what has been done for the young people. <span class="ng">(Elizabeth's aunt, Mrs.Gardiner)</span></li>
<li>And though he exclaimed at the term, she found that it had been pretty much the case. <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>Charles Dickens</h4>
<ul class="q">
<li class="lhdr">David Copperfield 1850</li>
<li>no great impression was made by it, as they were pretty sure of getting into trouble tomorrow (narrator)</li>
<li>'It was pretty far in the night,' said Peggotty, 'when she asked me for some drink;</li>
<li>The days passed pretty much as they had passed before <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li class="lhdr">Hard Times 1854</li>
<li>I doubt if you ever will see him now. It’s pretty plain to me, he’s off. <span class="ng">(Mr Childers)</span></li>
<li>Still, although they differed in every other particular, conceivable and inconceivable (especially inconceivable), they were pretty well united on the point that these unlucky infants were never to wonder. <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li>He then walked home pretty easily <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li class="lhdr">Great Expectations 1861</li>
<li>The soldiers were in front of us, extending into a pretty wide line with an interval between man and man <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li>"How did you get on up town?" I answered, "Pretty well, sir," and my sister shook her fist at me. <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li>"My name," he said, "is Jaggers, and I am a lawyer in London. I am pretty well known."</li>
</ul>
<h4>The Brontë sisters</h4>
<ul class="q">
<li class="lhdr">Charlotte Brontë - Shirley 1849</li>
<li>but I received letters this morning which showed me pretty clearly where I stand <span class="ng">(Mr Moore</span>)</li>
<li>and if you were a married man, and had a family, like me, I should think your case pretty nigh desperate; <span class="ng">(Mr Yorke)</span></li>
<li>she took a sufficiently grave view of the future, and fancied she knew pretty well how her own destiny and that of some others were tending. <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li class="lhdr">Emily Brontë - Wuthering Heights 1847</li>
<li>Heathcliff bore his degradation pretty well at first, because Cathy taught him what she learnt <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li>I don’t engage to let Hareton go undisputed; but I’ll be pretty sure to make the other come! </li>
<li>Is he pretty lively with Miss Linton generally? <span class="ng">(Edgar Linton)</span></li>
<li class="lhdr">Anne Brontë - The Tenant of Wildfell Hall 1848</li>
<li>and what little effort I made, was apparently pretty successful <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li>and whose son Robert was at that moment helping himself to a pretty stiff glass of the same. <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li>With a single set of quadrilles, and several country dances, we carried it on to a pretty late hour; <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>Other nineteenth century writers</h4>
<ul class="q">
<li class="lhdr">William Makepiece Thackeray - Vanity Fair 1848</li>
<li>All the world used her ill, said this young misanthropist, and we may be pretty certain that persons whom all the world treats ill, deserve entirely the treatment they get. <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li>Presently the baronet plunged a fork into the saucepan on the fire, and withdrew from the pot a piece of tripe and an onion, which he divided into pretty equal portions <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li>With the young people, whose applause she thoroughly gained, her method was pretty simple <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li class="lhdr">Elizabeth Gaskell - North and South 1855</li>
<li>He liked and disliked pretty nearly the same things that she did. <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li>I have great faith in the power of will. I think myself I have succeeded pretty well in yours. <span class="ng">(Mr Lennox)</span></li>
<li>I dare say, I was even considered a pretty fair classic in those days, though my Latin and Greek have slipt away from me since. <span class="ng">(Mr Thornton)</span></li>
<li class="lhdr">George Eliot - Middlemarch 1871-2</li>
<li>but at this moment she was seeking the highest aid possible that she might not dread the corrosiveness of Celia's pretty carnally minded prose <span class="ng">(narrator)</span></li>
<li>He is pretty certain to be a bishop, is Casaubon (<span class="ng">Mr Brooke)</span></li>
<li>It's pretty good authority, I think—a man who knows most of what goes on in Middlemarch <span class="ng">(Mr. Featherstone)</span></li>
</ul>
<ul class="q">
<li class="lhdr">Charles Darwin - The Voyage of the Beagle 1839</li>
<li>These houses are often large, and are built of thick upright posts, with boughs interwoven, and afterwards plastered. They seldom have floors, and never glazed windows; but are generally pretty well roofed.</li>
<li>They were fed only once a week, but they appeared in pretty good health.</li>
<li>The valley was pretty well sheltered from the cold wind, but there was very little brushwood for fuel.</li>
<li class="lhdr">Charles Darwin - The Origin of the Species 1859</li>
<li> It seems pretty clear that organic beings must be exposed during several generations to the new conditions of life to cause any appreciable amount of variation; and that when the organisation has once begun to vary, it generally continues to vary for many generations.</li>
<li>I may just mention that carnivorous animals, even from the tropics, breed in this country pretty freely under confinement</li>
<li>When a race of plants is once pretty well established, the seed-raisers do not pick out the best plants, but ...</li>
<li class="lhdr">John Ruskin - The Stones of Venice 1851-3</li>
<li>His third tier, if not his second, will probably appear a sufficiently secure foundation for finer work; for if the earth yield at all, it will probably yield pretty equally under the great mass of masonry now knit together over it.</li>
<li>We may be pretty sure that the building is a good one; none but a master of his craft would have ventured to do this.</li>
<li>The picture is dark and spoiled, but I am pretty sure there are no demons or spectres in it.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Early twentieth century</h3>
<ul class="q">
<li class="lhdr">Somerset Maugham - Of Human Bondage 1915</li>
<li>If you go on as you are now you'll find yourself head of the school one of these days, and you ought to be pretty safe for a scholarship when you leave <span class="ng">(headmaster)</span></li>
<li>Did he tell you so? In America we should call him a pretty fair specimen of a waster <span class="ng">(Weeks)</span></li>
<li>It sounds a pretty low-down thing to do. <span class="ng">(Philip)</span></li>
<li class="lhdr">James Joyce - Ulysses 1918-20</li>
<li>You would imagine that would get played out pretty quick</li>
<li>and anybody that conjectured the contrary would have found themselves pretty speedily in the wrong shop.</li>
<li>the perverted transcendentalism to which Mr S. Dedalus' (Div. Scep.) contentions would appear to prove him pretty badly addicted runs directly counter to accepted scientific methods</li>
<li class="lhdr">DH Lawrence - Sons and Lovers 1913</li>
<li>Her name changes pretty frequently, as a rule (Skrebensky)</li>
<li>Yes, they are pretty bad. The pits are very deep, and hot, and in some places wet <span class="ng">(Tom Brangwen)</span></li>
<li>they'll get you down if you don't tackle 'em pretty quick <span class="ng">(Mr Brunt)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Grammar Books etc</h3>
<ul class="q">
<li class="lhdr">Ambrose Pierce - Write it Right</li>
<li>Condemnation of the split infinitive is now pretty general, but it is only recently that any one seems to have thought of it.</li>
<li>It would be pretty hard on a foreigner skilled in the English tongue if he could not venture to ...</li>
<li>The word wed in all its forms as a substitute for marry, is pretty hard to bear.</li>
<li class="lhdr">The Grammar of English Grammars, Samuel U Berrian</li>
<li>It is hardly to be supposed that any person can have a very clear conviction of the best method of doing a thing, who shall not at first have acquired a pretty correct and adequate notion of the thing to be done.</li>
<li>But though the terms long and short, as applied to vowels, are pretty generally understood, (Walker)</li>
<li>In the preceding chapters, the essential principles of English syntax are supposed to be pretty fully developed;</li>
<li class="lhdr">An English Grammat, WM Baskerville and JW Sewell, 1895</li>
<li>Pretty has a wider adverbial use than it gets credit for.
<ul>
<li>I believe our astonishment is pretty equal.—Fielding.</li>
<li>Hard blows and hard money, the feel of both of which you know pretty well by now.—Kingsley.</li>
<li>The first of these generals is pretty generally recognized as the greatest military genius that ever lived.—Bayne.</li>
<li>A pretty large experience.—Thackeray.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Pretty is also used by Prescott, Franklin, De Quincey, Defoe, Dickens, Kingsley, Burke, Emerson, Aldrich, Holmes, and other writers.</li>
<li>24. It was pretty bad after that, and but for Polly's outdoor exercise, she would undoubtedly have succumbed.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Links</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=Iez7AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA77&lpg=PA77&dq=%22pretty+much+of+a+muchness%22&source=bl&ots=ptpMiXJeir&sig=NCWvHS1vnIKT-rK56Gkiw7qrJdM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=CkLnVNuSPI3DPNW3gNgO&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22pretty%20much%20of%20a%20muchness%22&f=false">Much of a muchness</a></li>
</ul>Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-81991256018682043192015-03-07T17:18:00.001+01:002015-03-19T14:24:59.353+01:00Gapfill test<style type="text/css">
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<div class="m10">This is not a real post, just a test of a gapfill program I posted.</div>
<h4 style="text-align:center;margin:20px auto;font-family:arial;font-size:16px;"><span class="instrC">Get - causative</span></h4>
<div id="wordBox" class="wordbox" style="margin:10px 0;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("1",0)"><span id="ex1Word0">built</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("1",1)"><span id="ex1Word1">painted</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("1",2)"><span id="ex1Word2">look</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("1",3)"><span id="ex1Word3">looked</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("1",4)"><span id="ex1Word4">fitted</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("1",5)"><span id="ex1Word5">prepare</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("1",6)"><span id="ex1Word6">install</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("1",7)"><span id="ex1Word7">teach</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("1",8)"><span id="ex1Word8">manicured</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("1",9)"><span id="ex1Word9">installed</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("1",10)"><span id="ex1Word10">check</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("1",11)"><span id="ex1Word11">look after</span></a></span> </div>
<div style="margin:10px" 0;"="" class="noprint"><span style="font-weight:bold"><span style="color:red;">Click and Drop</span></span> <span class="optionWord">click on a word or phrase in the box above and then on the appropriate gap.</span></div>
<div style="font-family:arial;font-size:16px;"><table style="line-height:1.5;font-size:16;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNumC">1.</td><td>Could you get somebody to <input style="width:50;" class="textBoxC" id="ex1AnsBox0" onclick="enterClickedWord(1,0)" type="text"> my account, please? </td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNumC">2.</td><td>We're getting a new washing machine <input style="width:90;" class="textBoxC" id="ex1AnsBox1" onclick="enterClickedWord(1,1)" type="text"> . </td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNumC">3.</td><td>She got her nails <input style="width:90;" class="textBoxC" id="ex1AnsBox2" onclick="enterClickedWord(1,2)" type="text"> yesterday. </td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNumC">4.</td><td>She got somebody to <input style="width:100;" class="textBoxC" id="ex1AnsBox3" onclick="enterClickedWord(1,3)" type="text"> her dog while she was on holiday. </td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNumC">5.</td><td>They're getting a conservatory <input style="width:100;" class="textBoxC" id="ex1AnsBox4" onclick="enterClickedWord(1,4)" type="text"> onto their house. </td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNumC">6.</td><td>He's getting winter tyres <input style="width:100;" class="textBoxC" id="ex1AnsBox5" onclick="enterClickedWord(1,5)" type="text"> to his car. </td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNumC">7.</td><td>They're getting a builder to <input style="width:100;" class="textBoxC" id="ex1AnsBox6" onclick="enterClickedWord(1,6)" type="text"> solar panels on their roof. </td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNumC">8.</td><td>I'll get the chef to <input style="width:100;" class="textBoxC" id="ex1AnsBox7" onclick="enterClickedWord(1,7)" type="text"> something special for the occasion. </td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNumC">9.</td><td>We got an electrician to come and <input style="width:100;" class="textBoxC" id="ex1AnsBox8" onclick="enterClickedWord(1,8)" type="text"> at the wiring. </td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNumC">10.</td><td>She's getting a friend to <input style="width:100;" class="textBoxC" id="ex1AnsBox9" onclick="enterClickedWord(1,9)" type="text"> her to drive. Bad idea! </td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNumC">11.</td><td>He got his garden <input style="width:100;" class="textBoxC" id="ex1AnsBox10" onclick="enterClickedWord(1,10)" type="text"> at by a landscape architect. </td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNumC">12.</td><td>We're getting our car <input style="width:100;" class="textBoxC" id="ex1AnsBox11" onclick="enterClickedWord(1,11)" type="text"> in psychedelic colours. - Cool! </td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div style="margin:10px 0;">
<input class="buttonC" value="Check" onclick="checkAnsBoxAnswers(1)" type="button">
<input class="buttonC" value="Show" onclick="showAnsBoxAnswers(1)" type="button">
<input class="buttonC" value="Clear" onclick="clearAnsBoxAnswers(1)" type="button">
<span id="messageArea1">
</span>
</div>
<div style="margin:10px 0;font-size:80%;color:gray;">
This exercise has been made using a free generator and script at <a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com">
<span style="color:#3399bb;font-family:georgia;font-weight:bold;">
Random Idea English</span>
</a>
</div>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-60016422156899687892014-12-31T17:19:00.000+01:002015-01-02T22:04:33.738+01:00Language peeves are sometimes a bit hard to understand - the strange case of hard and difficult
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">I recently came across this, from a commenter at the linguistics blog Arrant Pedantry:</div>
<div class="cite4">Schoolwork (homework) is not “hard”; it is “difficult”.<p>Comment at Arrant Pedantry</p></div>
<div class="m10">Googling around, I found a questioner at Stack Exchange saying that this had been a pet peeve of his grandfather, which led me to a discussion at Language Log, where a correspondent KF had written:</div>
<div class="cite4">Spelling is difficult; walls are hard.<br />
Many people fail to use the word hard correctly….</div>
<div class="m10">But why should anyone think using <span class="bQ">hard</span> to mean <span class="bQ">difficult</span> to be incorrect?</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>A total absence of any mention in usage guides</h3>
<div class="m10">Neither Fowler nor the Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage have entries for <span class="bQ">hard</span> as an adjective, only the comparison with <span class="bQ">hardly</span> as an adverb, suggesting that this particular controversy is rather limited. On the contrary, in the third edition of Fowler, Robert Burchfield has a section on 'hard words', and in Garner's Modern American Usage, Bryan Garner writes, quoting William Zinsser: </div>
<div class="cite4">Authorities on the written word echo each other in stressing how difficult good writing is: "Writing is hard work ... If you find that writing is hard, it's because it is hard."<p><em>Garner's Modern American Usage</em>, Bryan Garner (<a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=FwmQpyibKkAC&pg=PR46&dq=%22writing+is+hard%22+bryan+garner&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JfqjVPveCqbMyAPImILgCw&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22writing%20is%20hard%22%20bryan%20garner&f=false">Google Books</a>)</p></div>
<div class="m10">This would suggest that this is some sort of 'folk' peeve rather than a mainstream one. I'm nowhere closer to discovering where this idea has come from, but I've collected some examples of the historical use of <span class="bQ">hard</span> meaning <span class="bQ">difficult</span>, just to show that no one should have any doubts as to the legitimacy of this usage.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The earliest dictionaries - 'hard word' dictionaries</h3>
<div class="m10">What is widely regarded as the first English Dictionary, Robert Cawdrey's 'A Table Alphabeticall' of 1604, talks of 'hard usual words'</div>
<div class="cite4"><center>A<br />
Table Alphabeticall, con-<br />
tayning and teaching the true<br />
writing and understanding of hard<br />
usuall English words, borrowed from<br />
the Hebrew, Greeke, Latine<br />
or French &c.
<p>(<a href="http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/dic/caw/1613cawdrey.html">British Library</a>) (<a href="http://www.bl.uk/learning/images/texts/dict/large1321.html">Frontispiece</a>)</p></center>
</div>
<div class="m10">This tradition of 'hard word' dictionaries was carried on by John Bullokar, Thomas Blount and Elisha Coles, amongst others (although, admittedly, Bullokar calls them 'the most difficult words' (<a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=R8IDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=bullokar&hl=en&sa=X&ei=5gykVL70BIitygPzjYGQCw&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=bullokar&f=false">Google Books</a>).</div>
<div class="m10"><center>(<a href="http://public.oed.com/aspects-of-english/english-in-time/the-first-dictionaries-of-english/">OED - The First Dictionaries - 'hard word' dictionaries</a>)</center></div>
<div class="m10">We can compare this with John Rastell's <em>An Exposition of Certaine Difficult and Obscure Wordes</em> of 1579 (the only reference to <span class="bQ">difficult</span> at Google Books before 1600). But hard words stuck and in 1656 Thomas Blount published his</div>
<div class="cite4"><center>Glossographia:<br />
<span class="small">or a</span> <br />
Dictionary<br />
<span class="small">interpreting all such</span><br />
Hard Words<br />
of Whatever Language, now used
<br /><span class="small">in our refined English Tongue</span>e<p>(<a href="http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/dic/blount/1656blountsglossographia.html">British Library</a>) - (<a href="http://www.odlt.org/ballast/glossographia.html">Frontispiece</a>) </p></center></div>
<div class="m10">In 1676, Elish Coles published his dictionary:</div>
<div class="cite4"><center>An <br />
English Dictionary<br />
explaining the difficult terms that are used in ...<br />
Containing<br />
Many Thousands of Hard Words ...</center><p>(<a href="https://www.google.pl/search?q=elisha+coles+an+english+dictionary&hl=en-PL&bih=611&biw=1018&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=zA-kVNXrC8euUY-Ig4AJ&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ">Google Images</a>)</p></div>
<div class="m10">And in 1707 Blount published: </div>
<div class="cite4"><center>Glossographia Anglicana Nova<br />
<span class="small">or a</span><br />
Dictionary<br />
<span class="small">interpreting</span><br />
Such Hard Words of whatever<br />
language as are at present used in the<br />
English Tongue, with their Etymologies,<br />
Definitions &c.</center><p>(<a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=0EdWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false">Google Books</a>)</p></div>
<div class="m10">So it seems that in the earliest English dictionaries, at least, <span class="bQ">hard</span> and <span class="bQ">difficult</span>t were pretty well synonymous.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>Hard</em> = <em>difficult</em> - a literary / historical perspective</h3>
<div class="m10">According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, this meaning goes back to 1200, and the Oxford English Dictionary has examples going back to 1340 (see Language Log link below). The adjective <span class="bQ">difficult</span> in fact seems rather younger. This is from Etymology Online:</div>
<div class="cite4"><span class="bQ">difficult</span> (adj.)<br />
c.1400, apparently a back-formation from <span class="bQ">difficulty</span>. French has <em>difficile</em>, Latin <em>difficilis</em>. Of persons, "hard to please," from 1580s.<p>(<a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=difficult">Online Etymology Dictionary</a>)</p></div>
<div class="m10">The earliest I can find at Google Books is from a book by Erasmus, published in 1533, which has four instances of <span class="bQ">hard</span> meaning <span class="bQ">difficult</span>, and two of <span class="bQ">hard</span> meaning <span class="bQ">cruel</span>:</div>
<div class="cite4"><center>
<div class="m10"><a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=tfM-AAAAcAAJ&dq=A%20Playne%20and%20Godly%20Exposytion%20Or%20Declaration%20of%20the%20Commune%20Crede&pg=RA2-PA102&ci=250%2C437%2C663%2C174&source=bookclip"><img src="https://books.google.pl/books?id=tfM-AAAAcAAJ&pg=RA2-PA102&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U3OAoWWMET1wtRXs8RPsJJQpCIftg&ci=250%2C437%2C663%2C174&edge=0" height="75"/></a></div>
<br />
<div class="m10"><a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=tfM-AAAAcAAJ&dq=A%20Playne%20and%20Godly%20Exposytion%20Or%20Declaration%20of%20the%20Commune%20Crede&pg=RA3-PA149-IA5&ci=264%2C474%2C663%2C125&source=bookclip"><img src="https://books.google.pl/books?id=tfM-AAAAcAAJ&pg=RA3-PA149-IA5&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U3kxOISz-PeIpEpSVrqCWHY0WqSIg&ci=264%2C474%2C663%2C125&edge=0" height="60"/></a></div>
<br />
<div class="m10"><a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=tfM-AAAAcAAJ&dq=A%20Playne%20and%20Godly%20Exposytion%20Or%20Declaration%20of%20the%20Commune%20Crede&pg=RA1-PA72-IA1&ci=290%2C463%2C621%2C170&source=bookclip"><img src="https://books.google.pl/books?id=tfM-AAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA72-IA1&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U3-YoGxJSN9ppOdtHNq9hNBTEEZGA&ci=290%2C463%2C621%2C170&edge=0" height="70"/></a></div>
<p>A Playne and Godly Exposytion Or Declaration of the Commune Crede<br />
Erasmus, London 1533</p></center>
</div>
<div class="m10">Moving into the seventeenth century, theres's this from Shakespeare:</div>
<div class="cite4">And thou shalt see how apt it is to learne <br />
Any hard Lesson that may do thee good<p>Much Ado about Nothing</p></div>
<div class="m10">And from the King James Bible (1611) we have:</div>
<div class="cite4">Is anything too hard for the Lord <p>Genesis, xviii:14</p></div>
<div class="m10">From Milton in Paradise Lost, first published in 1667</div>
<div class="cite4"><center><a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=YmCtYLKc3gIC&dq=milton%20paradise%20lost&pg=PA50&ci=120%2C919%2C734%2C185&source=bookclip"><img src="https://books.google.pl/books?id=YmCtYLKc3gIC&pg=PA50&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U3XZhVo0wkEMIXCzptQY6jz10_o5Q&ci=120%2C919%2C734%2C185&edge=0" height="90"/></a></center></div>
<div class="cite4">As for the hard words, I was obliged to use<p>John Arbuthnot 1667-1735, quoted by Samuel Johnson</p></div>
<div class="m10">In his 1755 dictionary, Samuel Johnson gives seventeen different meanings of <span class="bQ">hard</span>, at least two of them concerned with difficulty, quoting Sidney, Dryden as well as Milton and Arbuthnot</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">2. Difficult; not easy on the intellect</div>
<div class="m10">3. Difficult of accomplishment; full of difficulties</div>
<p> <em>A Dictionary of the English Language</em>, Samuel Johnson, 1755</p><p>(<a href="http://johnsonsdictionaryonline.com/?page_id=7070&i=966">Johnson Dictionary Online - Page View, Page 966</a>)</p><p>
A Digital Edition of the 1755 Classic by Samuel Johnson. <br />
Edited by Brandi Besalke</p>
</div>
<div class="m10">And of course Dickens wrote ‘Hard Times’, published in 1854, the title of which no doubt plays on the several meanings of the word.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>Too hard</em></h3>
<div class="cite4"><div class="m10">And if this seeme too hard for us to doe</div>
<div class="m10">It is too hard a wal for us</div><p>Sermons of Master John Calvin, Upon the Booke of Job, Jean Calvin
Impensis Thomae Woodcocke, 1584 (<a href="https://books.google.pl/books?ei=7_6jVO6SNsLxUNm7gqAL&id=q-dBAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22too+hard%22&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22too+hard%22">Google Books</a>)</p></div>
<div class="cite4">O these are barraine taskes, too hard to keepe<p>Loves labors lost: the first quarto, William Shakespeare, 1598 (<a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=J50UAAAAQAAJ&q=%22too+hard%22&dq=%22too+hard%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Wf2jVIDGMob1Usb-g7AL&ved=0CDIQ6AEwBA">Google Books</a>)</p></div>
<div class="cite4">and to aid and assist us against all those Difficulties which would be otherwise too hard for us, if we were left to our selves.<p>The Christian Life, from Its Beginning, to Its Its Consummation in Glory, John Scott 1683 (<a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=4r4sAAAAYAAJ&q=%22too+hard%22&dq=%22too+hard%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Wf2jVIDGMob1Usb-g7AL&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAw">Google Books</a>)</p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Idioms and collocations</h3>
<div class="m10">And what about idiomatic expressions like ‘hard to say’ and other common collocations?</div>
<h4><em>Hard to say</em></h4>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=hard+to+say%2Cdifficult+to+say&year_start=1700&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Chard%20to%20say%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cdifficult%20to%20say%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="cite4">how many there were 'tis hard to say<p>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1673 (<a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=T9ReAAAAcAAJ&q=%22hard+to+say%22&dq=%22hard+to+say%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lOCjVMbDN8HlUrW_gqgL&ved=0CCQQ6AEwAQ">Google Books</a>)</p></div>
<div class="cite4">that it is hard to say which they rather deserve, our pity or contempt<p>The Spectator, No 282, January 1712 (<a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=TEJHAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA353&lpg=PA353&dq=%22that+it+is+hard+to+say+which+they+rather+deserve,+our+pity+or+contempt%22&source=bl&ots=7WFt7wngL2&sig=IEwK8FTuHFmk_SdI3XaHkyer3Do&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PtmjVMf4FcWyUaOngPAK&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22that%20it%20is%20hard%20to%20say%20which%20they%20rather%20deserve%2C%20our%20pity%20or%20contempt%22&f=false">Google Books</a>)</p></div>
<h4><em>Hard lesson</em></h4>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=hard+lesson%2Cdifficult+lesson&year_start=1700&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Chard%20lesson%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cdifficult%20lesson%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="m10">We've already seen one from Shakespeare. Here's another, from 1704</div>
<div class="cite4">But as absurd as this is, universal Experience teaches us, that Humility, true Humility is a hard Lesson<p><em>Religious Perfection, Or, A Third Part of the Enquiry</em>, Richard Lucas - 1704 (<a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=BJtHAAAAYAAJ&q=%22hard+lesson%22&dq=%22hard+lesson%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YO6jVPTXO4bzUujEg6AL&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAQ">Google Books</a>)</p> </div>
<h4><em>Hard question</em></h4>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=hard+question%2Cdifficult+question&year_start=1700&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Chard%20question%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cdifficult%20question%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="cite4">but the hard question was, whether he would doe it<p>Fast sermons to Parliament 1648 (<a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=a8wXAQAAMAAJ&q=%22hard+question%22&dq=%22hard+question%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=qOGjVPuMLIHeULnkguAK&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA">Google Books</a>)</p><p>For an explanation of these fast sermons see (<a href="http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/themes/religion/fast-sermons">The History of Parliament</a>)</p></div>
<div class="cite4">although he was very learned, yet knowing that God leads us not to heaven by hard questions<p>The Compleat Angler, Izaak Walton, London 1653 (<a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=eYAoAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+compleat+angler&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lfCjVJq8F8S8Ud-Kg4gN&ved=0CFgQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=hard%20%22questions%22&f=false">Google Books</a>)</p></div>
<h4><em>Hard test</em></h4>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=hard+test%2Cdifficult+test&year_start=1700&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Chard%20test%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cdifficult%20test%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="cite4">The sure and hard test of good troops is the bayonet : how then can it be expected that new levies of citizens should stand this test, at the very first time of their seeing an enemy ?<p>The Antijacobin Review and True Churchman's Magazine, 1818 (<a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=Ev_VAAAAMAAJ&q=%22hard+test%22&dq=%22hard+test%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=meSjVLLOFIG6UqK8g_AK&ved=0CE4Q6AEwCQ">Google Books</a>)</p></div>
<h4><em>Hard exam</em></h4>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=hard+exam%2Cdifficult+exam&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Chard%20exam%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cdifficult%20exam%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="cite4">The Army has a hard "exam."—<br />
The pay is small when "through"; <br />
For Civil Service what a "cram" <br />
And competition too!
<p><em>Rhymes of the Times</em>, C. J. H. Cassels - 1891 (<a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=cqwsAAAAYAAJ&q=%22hard+exam%22&dq=%22hard+exam%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Bu2jVKzPLcH-UpOVgqgL&ved=0CDoQ6AEwBg">Google Books</a>)</p></div>
<h4>A hard act to follow</h4>
<div class="m10">This seems relatively recent, with only one dated before 2000 at Google Books, and (<a href="http://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/14/business/a-hard-act-to-follow-here-goes.html">this article</a>) from the New York Times, from 1997. Dictionary.com has it as being from 1975+</div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=a+hard+act+to+follow&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Ca%20hard%20act%20to%20follow%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Final word</h3>
<div class="m10">If anything,it looks as though <span class="bQ">hard</span> was used to signify <em>difficult</em> before <span class="bQ">difficult</span> was. And English is by no means the only language where one word means both the opposite of <em>soft</em>, and the opposite of <em>easy</em>; there's <span class="bQ">dur</span> in French, for example:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10">Le granit est une roche dure. <br />
<span class="nml">Granite is a hard rock.</span></li>
<li class="m10">Le sommet est dur à atteindre. <br />
<span class="nml">The summit is hard to reach.</span></li>
</ul>
<p>(<a href="http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/dur_dure/27018">Larousse</a>)</p></div>
<div class="m10">It is one of the joys of English that we often have a choice of words to use for the same meaning, and that the same or similar words can have different meanings. How otherwise would we have a humour based so much on word play, illustated in this interchange from <em>Not the Nine O'Clock News</em>, in a sketch about Gerald the Gorilla:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="nml"><strong>Prof:</strong></span> I'm sorry, can I put this into some sort of perspective, when I caught Gerald in '68 he was completely wild</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="nml"><strong>Gerald:</strong></span> Wild, I was absolutely livid ..</li>
</ul>
<p>(<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=beCYGm1vMJ0">YouTube</a>)</p>
</div>
<div class="m10">It seems some would prefer not to have that choice. Strange!</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Final final word</h3>
<div class="m10">And if <span class="bQ">hard</span> didn't also have the meaning of <span class="bQ">difficult</span>, we wouldn't be able to have double entendres like this, from Simon Nye's production for ITV of the panto '<em>Jack and the Beanstalk</em>'; Jill is in Jack's arms and they are singing a song together:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="nml"><b>Jill</b> (romantically):</span> Oh Jack, I can feel something between us.</li>
<li><span class="nml"><b>Jack:</b></span> I'm sorry.</li>
<li><span class="nml"><b>Jill</b> (innocently)</span>: It's getting harder to resist.</li>
<li><span class="nml"><b>Jack</b> (not so innocently):</span> ... it's getting harder.</li>
<li><span class="nml"><b>Jill:</b></span> I can't believe how big our love has grown.</li>
<li><span class="nml"><b>Jack</b> (well,you get the idea):</span> ... how big it's grown.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">You can see the video clip at <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6EP4zyo2NM">YouTube</a>. For more on the peculiarly British form of slightly risqué (OK, downright rude) family entertainment that is panto(mine), see my post <a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.co.uk/2011/01/its-behind-you-very-british-tradition.html">It's behind you</a>.</div>
</div>
<h3>Links</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.arrantpedantry.com/2014/12/24/another-day-another-worthless-grammar-quiz/comment-page-2/#comments">Comment at ArrantPedantry</a></li>
<li><a href="http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/15916/is-it-incorrect-to-use-hard-when-i-mean-difficult">Stack Exchange</a></li>
<li><a href="http://johnsonsdictionaryonline.com/?page_id=7070&i=966">A Dictionary of the English Language: A Digital Edition of the 1755 Classic by Samuel Johnson. Edited by Brandi Besalke</a> - Page View, Page 966</li>
<li><a href="http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=2385">Language Log</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/themes/religion/fast-sermons">Fast Sermons to parliament</a> - The History of Parliament</li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-43531466953272213422014-12-26T12:36:00.001+01:002014-12-26T12:36:35.873+01:00Whom confusion<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">Doing a Google site search of TripAdvisor the other day, I noticed that on the first search page for <span class="bQ">'the person whom'</span>, this expression was used more often to refer to the subject than to the object, in other words incorrectly, in structures like this:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>She is the woman whom runs the hotel.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Which should of course be:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>She is the woman who/that runs the hotel.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">I know <span class="bQ">whom</span> causes problems, but I hadn't realised quite to what an extent.</div>
<div class="m10">So I decided to try with a couple of other similar expressions, and compare with Facebook and Twitter.</div>
<div class="m10">I realise that many of the contributors to these sites are non-native speakers, and in no way do I want to mock anyone by quoting them, whether English is their first or second language, and I have nothing but respect for people who make the effort to write in a language other than their own. I just want to point out the dangers of using <span class="bQ">whom</span> unless you really know what you're doing.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>A quick reminder of the rules</h3>
<div class="m10">In sentences like these, which include defining (or restrictive) relative clauses (in darker blue):</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="nml">we use <span class="bQ">who</span> (or <span class="bQ">that</span>) to begin the relative clause when talking of a person:</span><ul style="list-style:none;margin-top:5px;">
<li>She is the woman <span class="rc">who/that spoke to us yesterday</span>. <span class="nml">(subject)</span></li>
<li>They're the people <span class="rc">(who/that) we saw at the marina</span>. <span class="nml">(direct object)</span></li>
<li>He's the man <span class="rc">(who/that) I was talking about</span>. <span class="nml">(object of preposition)</span></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="nml">we use <span class="bQ">which</span> (or <span class="bQ">that</span>) when talking about anything else:</span><ul style="list-style:none;margin-top:5px;">
<li>That's the car <span class="rc">which/that won the race</span>. <span class="nml">(subject)</span></li>
<li>This is just the sort of situation <span class="rc">(which/that) I wanted to avoid</span>. <span class="nml">(direct object)</span></li>
<li>I found that book <span class="rc">(which/that) I was looking for</span>. <span class="nml">(object of preposition)</span></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="nml">When the relative pronoun refers to the direct object or the object of a preposition, it can be left out:</span></li>
<ul style="list-style:none;margin-top:5px;">
<li>They're the people <span class="rc">we saw at the marina</span>. <span class="nml">(direct object)</span></li>
<li>I found that book <span class="rc">I was looking for</span>. <span class="nml">(object of preposition)</span></li>
</ul>
<li class="m10"><span class="nml">In a very formal style we can use <span class="bQ">whom</span> for people when the relative pronoun refers to the direct object or object of a preposition, but <span class="ul">not</span> when it refers to the subject. However, this is never necessary, as we can use <span class="bQ">who/that</span> or omit the pronoun altogether, and native speakers very rarely use <span class="bQ">whom</span> in these constructions.</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="nml">The only exception is if the relative pronoun follows a preposition, and we usually avoid having to use <span class="bQ">whom</span> by putting the preposition at the end (known as preposition stranding) - <span class="bQ">'Who did you speak to?'</span> (more natural than <span class="bQ">'To whom did you speak?'</span></span></li>
</ul>
<h4>Tip - never use <em>whom</em> immediately before a verb</h4>
<div class="m10">If you must use <span class="bQ">whom</span>, never use it when the relative pronoun is followed immediately by a verb, as the relative pronoun can only be referring to the subject:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>She is the woman <span class="ul">who/that</span> <span class="ul">runs</span> the hotel.</li>
<li><span class="strike">She is the woman whom runs the hotel.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The breakdown</h3>
<table class="grammarTable">
<tr><td></td><td>TripAdvisor</td><td>Facebook</td><td>Twitter</td><td>Total</td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="bQ">the person whom</span> - object</td><td>4</td><td>10</td><td>5</td><td>19</td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="bQ">the person whom</span> - subject</td><td>6</td><td>0</td><td>5</td><td>11</td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="bQ">the woman whom</span> - object</td><td>5</td><td>7</td><td>6</td><td>18</td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="bQ">the woman whom</span> - subject</td><td>5</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>11</td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="bQ">the man whom</span> - object</td><td>1</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>11</td></tr>
<tr><td><span class="bQ">the man whom</span> - subject</td><td>7</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>16</td></tr>
<tr><td>Total - object</td><td>10</td><td>22</td><td>16</td><td>48</td></tr>
<tr><td>Total - subject</td><td>18</td><td>7</td><td>13</td><td>38</td></tr>
<tr><td>Total - indirect</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>3</td></tr>
<tr><td>Total - ambiguous</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td></tr>
<tr><td>Percentage subject</td><td>60</td><td>23</td><td>53</td><td>42</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="m10">So in these examples at least, and there's no way to know whether these figures are at all representative, in around 42% of instances (rising to 60% at TripAdvisor), <span class="bQ">whom</span> is being used to refer to the subject, and therefore is being used incorrectly.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4>Comments</h4>
<div class="m10">I can only assume that a lot of people think that <span class="bQ">whom</span> is simply a more formal version of <span class="bQ">who</span>, and are unaware of the subject / object difference (I seem to remember having seen such a suggestion in forums).</div>
<div class="m10">But why bother with <span class="bQ">whom</span> at all? Except in formal writing, <span class="bQ">whom</span> is never necessary. We can nearly always use <span class="bQ">who</span>, which is in any case more natural. And if the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun (in other words, it refers to the object), we can simply leave it out altogether - <span class="bQ">'He is the man I love'</span> (nobody says, let alone sings, <span class="bQ">the man whom I love</span>).</div>
<div class="m10">Even when <span class="bQ">whom</span> was being used correctly in these examples, it was never necessary. In none of these examples does <span class="bQ">whom</span> follow a preposition, so it could have been omitted in every instance.</div>
<div class="m10">Most native speakers use <span class="bQ">whom</span> rarely in conversation. And if you do use it without really knowing the rules, the risk of getting it wrong seems from these figures to be rather high.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4>Some random thoughts on indirect structures</h4>
<div class="m10">I've signalled three examples as being indirect structures:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="bQ">The man whom <span class="rc">I assume</span> <span class="ul">is the owner of the establishment</span> is very rude</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">... is the man whom <span class="rc">I think</span> <span class="ul">is totally mine</span></span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">to the woman whom <span class="rc">I'm sure</span> <span class="ul">will be my step-mother one day</span></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Conventional wisdom says that <span class="bQ">whom</span> is incorrect here, and that <span class="bQ">who</span> is necessary because, as I understand it, the relative pronoun's function as the subject of the underlined section outweighs any need for the reporting clause (<span class="bQ">assume, think, be sure</span> - in <span class="rc">darker blue</span>) to have an object. And we would certainly need <span class="bQ">who</span> (or <span class="bQ">that</span>) if we took away the reporting clause:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="bQ">The man who/that <span class="ul">is the owner of the establishment</span> is very rude</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">... is the man who/that <span class="ul">is totally mine</span></span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">to the woman who/that <span class="ul">will be my step-mother one day</span></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">This use of <span class="bQ">whom</span> here is often called hypercorrection. But there is a bit of a difference of opinion here, and not everyone agrees that it is in fact an error. For example, the relative pronoun can be omitted, which usually applies to <span class="bQ">whom</span> but not to <span class="bQ">who</span> when it refers to the subject.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="bQ">The man I assume is the owner of the establishment is very rude</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">... is the man I think is totally mine</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">to the woman I'm sure will be my step-mother one day</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But again, <span class="bQ">whom</span> is probably best avoided.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The examples</h3>
<div class="m10">I've taken the first ten examples of each expression, except where there was repetition. Of the three sites I looked at, TripAdvisor is where incorrect use of <span class="bQ">whom</span> is most evident. I've replaced names with an X.</div>
<div class="m10">I didn't include what were obviously biblical quotes, and references to a certain Ian Doyle, a singer who goes by the name of '<em>The Man Whom</em>'.</div>
<div class="m10">Examples of <span class="bQ">whom</span> being incorrectly used to refer to the subject are underlined.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>At Tripadvisor.co.uk</h3>
<h4>Totals</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Refers to object - 10</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Refers to subject - 18</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Indirect structure - 1</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Ambiguous - 1</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>the person whom</em></h4>
<ol class="instr">
<li><span class="bQ">The person <span class="ul">whom</span> is staying at the room and i the person <span class="ul">whom</span> is holding the hotel card , both of us equally shocked</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Especially the person whom we had to deal with in ...</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Uncule Ji the person whom you will meet In Hotel Chail Residence</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The person <span class="ul">whom</span> takes care of the breakfast is ... </span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The person <span class="ul">whom</span> wrote the report ... </span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Then the person behind the desk insisted on speaking with the person whom I was sharing the room with</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The person <span class="ul">whom</span> was checking me in seemed somewhat perhaps uncomfortable on the checking in process</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">... kept blocking the access for the person <span class="ul">whom</span> had booked ...</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">He is the person whom I gonna nominate for the best hospitality specialist in the world</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">the person <span class="ul">whom</span> assisted me at the front desk was very helpful</span></li>
</ol>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Refers to object - 2, 3, 6, 9</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Refers to subject - 1 (x2), 4, 5, 7, 8, 10</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>the woman whom</em></h4>
<ol class="instr">
<li><span class="bQ">the woman <span class="ul">whom</span> helped me was very nice</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Back at the hotel ... I met the woman whom Neil (knew?) nothing about</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The woman <span class="ul">whom</span> checked me in during the night shift was...</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">I arrived with my Son and found a less than welcoming feeling procured by the Woman <span class="ul">whom </span>was running the restauraunt</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The woman whom I dated sayed that it is enjoyable , soft atmosphere like traweling in india.</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ"> Finally I offered to buy two deck chairs for the man and the woman whom we "assaulted"</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The woman <span class="ul">whom</span> placed this review was renting rooms without my knowledge</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The woman whom we asked if we could sit anywhere we wanted did not reply.</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The woman whom we took to be the restaurant manager was hopeless</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">the woman <span class="ul">whom </span>checked us out told us that ... </span></li>
</ol>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Refers to object - 2, 5, 6, 8, 9</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Refers to subject - 1, 3, 4, 7, 10</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>the man whom</em></h4>
<ol class="instr">
<li><span class="bQ">The man <span class="ul">whom</span> supposedly cleaned the room need ...</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The man whom I assume is the owner of the establishment is very rude</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">... where I told the man (whom is suppose to be the manager)</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">... from the man <span class="ul">whom</span> insisted on pressing my trousers for me to ...</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">the man <span class="ul">whom</span> poured the wines and the bread/cheese man were lovely</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">this is the man <span class="ul">whom</span> should be running our great country.</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Overall, the man <span class="ul">whom</span> served us was an obnoxious, unfriendly excuse of a man! </span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">the mood of our server as well as the man <span class="ul">whom</span> brought out our food changed</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">However the man <span class="ul">whom</span> first approached us came first and asked about our plans</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">I asked for the man whom I had emailed</span></li>
</ol>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Refers to object - 10</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Refers to subject - 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Indirect structure - 2</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Ambiguous - 3</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>At Facebook</h3>
<h4>Totals</h4>
<ul>
<li>Refers to object - 22</li>
<li>Refers to subject - 7</li>
<li>Indirect structure- 1</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>the person whom</em></h4>
<ol class="instr">
<li><span class="bQ">You may always not get the person whom u love the most.</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The person whom you loved the most is on Facebook</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Love does not betray, betrays the person whom you Love</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The person whom I love the most</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">I Hate it When Others Flirt With the Person Whom i Like</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Love Hurts The Most When The Person Whom Yew Love, , Loves Someone Else</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">It Feels Strange When The Person Whom You LOved Only Likes You</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">I hate it when, the person whom Im cheating from, turns to next page</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">It Rarely Hapends That The Person Whom U Love Have Same Feelings For You</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">You're The Person Whom I've Loved since Before I Even Liked People</span></li>
</ol>
<ul class="nml">
<li><span class="nml">Refers to object - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>the woman whom</em></h4>
<ol class="instr">
<li><span class="bQ">To marry the woman whom i trully love</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Love The Food & The Woman <span class="ul">Whom</span> Makes It</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The woman whom I painted on the wall of my golden room</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The woman whom Allah heard above the seven heavens</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">To the woman whom I owe everything to...</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Hi ~ to the woman <span class="ul">whom</span> makes jams and pickles</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The woman, whom Newsweek is not naming because she remains under cove</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">..the woman, whom he did not recognize, turned into his yard</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The woman whom I won the art piece for </span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The story about the woman <span class="ul">whom</span> saved buddy from a field in California is very very touching!</span></li>
</ol>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Refers to object - 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 </span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Refers to subject - 2, 6, 10</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>the man whom</em></h4>
<ol class="instr">
<li><span class="bQ"> is the man whom i think is totally mine</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The man whom i admire most</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Denzil the man <span class="ul">whom</span> never rocks the boat</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The man <span class="ul">whom</span> added 27 new photos.</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Narinder Singh Kapany : The man whom only a few know.</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The Man <span class="ul">whom</span> killed X</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The man whom you call a criminal, is also in pursuit of his happiness</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">the man whom we all grew up with in</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">What ever happened with the man <span class="ul">whom</span> did the DDs commercials</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Jade London, the man whom Valerian Ruminski disparaged on Facebook responded</span></li>
</ol>
<ul class="nml">
<li><span class="nml">Refers to object - 2, 5, 7, 8, 10</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Refers to subject - 3, 4, 6, 9</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Indirect structure - 1</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>At Twitter</h3>
<h4>Totals</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Refers to object - 16</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Refers to subject - 13</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Indirect structure - 1</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>the person whom</em></h4>
<ol class="instr">
<li><span class="bQ">Would the person <span class="ul">whom</span> didth this step fowardth </span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Happy birthday to the person <span class="ul">whom</span> inspires me the most every single day</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Ironically, the person whom you care about the most is ...</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">... is when the person whom u love loves u back.</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The person <span class="ul">whom</span> not only treats me like a princess</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">It's not the person whom we really fall for but ...</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ"> the person whom I will be able to see</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">This is the person <span class="ul">whom</span> has stolen my phone</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The person whom X attacked</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Please have the person <span class="ul">whom</span> transferred them to you to cancel them </span></li>
</ol>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Refers to object - 3, 4, 6, 7, 9</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Refers to subject - 1, 2, 5, 8, 10</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>the woman whom</em></h4>
<ol class="instr">
<li><span class="bQ">Hippolyta is the woman whom Anita Sarkeesian's detractors accuse Anita of being</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">To the woman whom I love dearly and closest to my heart</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The Woman whom even God dreamed of, before the world was made.</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">the woman <span class="ul">whom</span> is making some pieces for my cheshire the cat costume</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Funny how the woman whom you made feel like nothing can and will ...</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Don't Be the Woman whom I care About ... </span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The woman whom I owe all in Life</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Meet The Woman <span class="ul">Whom</span> Despite Being 42 Is Back To Secondary School</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">to the woman whom I'm sure will be my step-mother one day</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">didn't the woman <span class="ul">whom</span> used to run the secret service write a novel?</span></li>
</ol>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Refers to object - 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Refers to subject - 4, 8, 10</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Indirect structure - 9</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>the man whom</em></h4>
<ol class="instr">
<li><span class="bQ">Happy 66th Birthday to the man whom I am blessed to call my Father!</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The man <span class="ul">whom</span> recorded killing of X has been prosecuted</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The man <span class="ul">whom</span> with his fingers cheats</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">the man <span class="ul">whom</span> martyred X </span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The man ... whom every1 called d "GREATEST"</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ"> I know and you know the man whom you are referring to</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">The man, <span class="ul">whom</span> then urged the curbing of ...</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Going to enjoy reading about the man whom I named my son after </span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">70 years ago today, the man whom many consider the greatest Celtic player, Jimmy Johnstone, was born in Viewpark.</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ">Today is dedicated to the man <span class="ul">whom</span> completed 11000km cycle from Cairo to CapeTown</span></li>
</ol>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Refers to object - 1, 5, 6, 8, 9</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Refers to subject - 2, 3, 4, 7, 10</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Related posts</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/07/q-when-do-we-use-whom-instead-of-who.html">When do we use <span class="bQ">whom</span> instead of <span class="bQ">who</span>.</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/10/q-when-do-we-use-that-instead-of-who-or.html">When do we use <span class="bQ">that</span> instead of <span class="bQ">who</span> or <span class="bQ">which</span>.</a></li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">WhomWatch</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2014/01/whom-watch-4-on-messrs-gwynne-lowth.html">4. On Messrs Gwynne and Lowth</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2013/12/whom-watch-3-silly-infographic.html">3. Silly infographics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/03/whomwatch-2-sometimes-comments-are-best.html">2. Sometimes the comments are the best part</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/02/whomwatch-1.html">1. The Apostrophe Protection Society</a></li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-40398272136312297462014-12-17T22:25:00.001+01:002014-12-31T23:52:48.500+01:00Random thoughts on that and wh-words in it-clefts<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">A couple of years ago I posted a lesson on cleft sentences where I said:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">The structure is:</div>
<div class="cons"><span class="bQ">It is / was</span> + <span class="ul">emphasised noun phrase</span> + <span class="bQ">who / that / when</span> + rest of the sentence</div>
<div class="m10">Notice that the use of pronouns is the same as in defining relative clauses:</div>
<ul>
<li class="m10"><span class="bQ">who</span> or <span class="bQ">that</span> for people</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="bQ">that</span> (NOT <span class="strike"><span class="bQ">which</span></span>) for things and after prepositional phrases</li>
<li class="m10">As in defining relative clauses, <span class="bQ">who</span> and <span class="bQ">that</span> can be left out when they refer to the object or the object of a preposition.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="m10">I'll quickly gloss over the fact that I compared using <span class="bQ">that</span> and not <span class="bQ">which</span> to the use of pronouns in defining relative clauses (where, of course, we can use <span class="bQ">which</span>, despite the naysayers).</div>
<div class="m10">The problem was that a commenter, a certain elhamcz, had noticed that while I had ruled out <span class="bQ">which</span> for things, one of the resources I had linked to included it in their list of allowable pronouns, and not surprisingly elhamcz was rather confused. Furthermore elhamcz wanted to know what other relative pronouns or <span class="bQ">wh</span>-words, for example <span class="bQ">whom</span> and <span class="bQ">where</span>, could be used in <span class="bQ">it</span>-clefts, and whether there were any sources that could provide an answer to this problem.</div>
<div class="m10">Now I am neither a linguist nor a grammar expert, and had based my lesson on EFL grammars that I use regularly, but I wondered if perhaps I was being too categorical in dismissing <span class="bQ">which</span> for things, and should I have included <span class="bQ">when</span>? Anyway, I decided to have a root around.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>What is an <em>it</em>-cleft? A quick reminder.</h3>
<div class="m10">An <span class="bQ">it</span>-cleft (also called a true cleft, or simply a cleft sentence) is a structure where we emphasise one element of a sentence (usually but not always a noun phrase, and underlined in these examples) by placing it after an introductory <span class="bQ">it is/was</span> and putting the rest of the sentence into what looks very much like a defining (restrictive) relative clause. <span class="bQ">Cleft</span> means split or divided, and that's what we do to the original sentence: we split it in two:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10">Sheila wants a puppy for Christmas<br />
<span class="nml"> - normal non-cleft sentence</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="rc">It's</span> <span class="ul">Sheila</span> <span class="rc">who</span> wants a puppy for Christmas<br />
<span class="nml">(<em>not Debbie, for example</em>)<br />
- cleft sentence emphasising the subject</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="rc">It's</span> <span class="ul">a puppy</span> <span class="rc">(that)</span> Sheila wants for Christmas<br />
<span class="nml">(<em>rather than a kitten, for exampl</em>e)<br />
- cleft sentence emphasising the subject</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="rc">It's</span> <span class="ul">for Christmas</span> <span class="rc">that</span> Sheila wants a puppy<br />
<span class="nml">(<em>rather than for her birthday, which isn't till March</em>)<br />
- cleft sentence emphasising a prepositional phrase</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">The question is: Can we use the same introductory words, relative pronouns and adverbs, to introduce that second clause as we can in standard defining relative clauses, or are there some special restrictions when it comes to <span class="bQ">it</span>-clefts? In other words, can we use other <span class="bQ">wh</span>-words such as <span class="bQ">which, whom, whose, when</span> and <span class="bQ">where</span>?</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>EFL grammar books and course materials</h3>
<div class="m10">Most EFL grammar books seem to mention only <span class="bQ">that</span>, <span class="bQ">who</span> and zero (omitting the pronoun altogether when it refers to the object); this is from <em>Grammar and Vocabulary for CAE and CPE</em> by Side and Wellman (Longman), which I use a lot:</div>
<div class="cite4">To emphasise nouns, we can use a structure with <em>it</em> + <em>be</em> + noun + <em>that/who</em>
<ul>
<li>It was the jug (that) she threw out of the window</li>
<li>It was the window (that) she threw the jug out of</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="m10">Similarly, Michael Swan, in <em>Practical English Usage</em> (Oxford), the standard reference book for many an EFL teacher, says:</div>
<div class="cite4"><div class="m10">... the words to be emphasised are usually joined to the relative clause by <em>that</em></div>
<div class="m10"><em>who</em> is possible instead of <em>that</em> when a personal subject is emphasised</div>
</div>
<div class="m10">Neither of these books mention <span class="bQ">which</span>, but nor do they specifically rule it out, simply saying that <span class="bQ">that</span> is the usual form. B.D.Graver, in the rather older <em>Advanced English Practice</em> (Oxford 1979), however, seems to do just that, as well as disallowing any other introductory words (for example <span class="bQ">where</span> or <span class="bQ">when</span>):</div>
<div class="cite4">
Either <em>who</em> or <em>that</em> can be used to refer to a person, but in all other cases we use <em>that</em>, even when referring to adverbial phrases:
<ul>
<li>It was John who/that solved the problem.</li>
<li>It's your help (that) I need,not your sympathy.</li>
<li>It's only in the winter that it really gets cold.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="m10">And in the even earlier <em>Practical English Grammar</em>, by AJ Thomson, AV Martinet (Oxford), first published in 1960 and the 4th edition of which (1986) still appears to be quite popular here in Poland, they say:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<ul>
<li>It was Tom who helped us. (not Bill or Jack)</li>
<li>It was Ann that I saw. (not Mary)</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">When the object is a proper noun, as above, <em>that</em> is more usual than <em>who</em>. With all other objects, <em>that</em> is the correct form:</div>
<ul>
<li>It's the manager that we want to see.</li>
<li>It was wine that we ordered, (not beer)</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><em>that</em> is usual for non-personal subjects:</div>
<ul>
<li>It's speed that causes accidents, not bad roads.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="m10">Martin Hewings, in <em>Advanced Grammar in Use</em> (Cambridge 1999), although agreeing that we usually use <span class="bQ">that</span>, is a little more open to other possibilities:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">The information we want to emphasise comes after <em>be</em> and is followed by a clause usually beginning with <em>that</em>.</div>
<div class="m10">We sometimes use <em>which</em> or <em>who</em> instead of <em>that</em>; <em>where</em> and <em>when</em> can be used, but usually only in informal English, and <em>how</em> or <em>why</em> can't replace <em>that</em>.</div>
</div>
<div class="m10">And some more modern course books seem to reflect that, at least as far as <span class="bQ">which</span> goes:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10"><em>It is/was … who/which/that</em></div><p>Destination C1 & C2 (Macmillan 2007)</p>
<div class="m10"><em>It is / was</em> + noun phrase + relative clause (with <em>that / which</em> etc)
</div><p>Global Advanced (Macmillan 2012)</p>
<div class="m10"><em>it</em> + a form of <em>be</em> (+ <em>not</em> and/or adverb) + emphasised word + <em>that/which/who</em> clause</div><p>MyGrammarLab Advanced (Pearson 2012)</p>
</div>
<div class="m10">And at least one course book has an example with <span class="bQ">when</span>:</div>
<div class="cite4"><ul>
<li>It was last Friday when we had the meeting.</li>
</ul><p><em>English File Advanced</em> 2010</p></div>
<div class="m10">I was using this book regularly when I wrote that post, so this is probably where I got the bit about <span class="bQ">when</span> from.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Reference grammars</h3>
<div class="m10">There are two very large reference grammars, written mainly by linguists, that have had an enormous influence on other writers of grammar books and course books: <em>The Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</em> (CGEL), by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik, published in 1985, and <em>The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language</em> (CaGEL), by Rodney Huddleston, Geoffrey K. Pullum and others, published in 2002.</div>
<div class="m10">Both have quite a lot to say about <span class="bQ">it</span>-clefts, but not a lot about what words introduce the relative clause, although the vast majority of their examples start with that, who or zero.</div>
<div class="m10">This is from the Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (18.26):</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">... examples show that pronouns used in [restrictive] relative clauses (who, that, zero) are also used to introduce cleft sentences</div>
<div class="m10">There are differences from relative clauses, however, in that the <em>wh</em>-forms are rare in cleft sentences in comparison with <em>that</em> and zero. Although <em>whose</em> is allowed in cleft sentences (<em>It's
Uncle Bill whose address I lost</em>), <em>whom</em> and <em>which</em> are only marginally possible, and it is virtually impossible to use <em>whom</em> or <em>which</em> preceded by a preposition.</div>
</div>
<div class="m10">I'll take a closer look at that last statement a bit later. In the Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (Chapter 16, Section 9 Clefts), there is no mention that I can see of what relative words are possible. Nearly all the examples are of <span class="bQ">that</span>, <span class="bQ">who</span> or zero pronoun, but there are a couple of exceptions:</div>
<div class="cite4"><ul>
<li class="m10">It's you <span class="ul">whose</span> head will roll.<br />
<span class="nml">or its more common variant:</span><br />
It's your head that will roll.</li>
<li class="m10">It's the president <span class="ul">to whom</span> I'm referring.<br /><span class="nml">a more formal version of:</span><br />
It's the president I'm referring to.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="m10">So, according to CaGel, <span class="bQ">whom</span> and <span class="bQ">whose</span> can exist, but that we are more likely to use alternative variants. I can find no mention, in either work, of <span class="bQ">when</span> or <span class="bQ">where</span>.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Linguistics books and papers</h3>
<div class="m10">There appears to be quite a lot of discussion about <span class="bQ">it</span>-clefts among linguists, most of it way above my head, but remarkably little about introductory pronouns, etc. But here are a couple of examples with <span class="bQ">which</span>. </div>
<div class="cite4">
<ul>
<li class="m10">It was the money <span class="ul">which</span> (that) he stole<br />
<span class="nml">(from a paper by Bolinger 1972)</span></li>
<li class="m10">It's not the frog but the tadpoles <span class="ul">which</span> tell us the truth about our class system.<br />
<span class="nml">(from a BBC debate)</span></li>
</ul>
<p>The English it-Cleft: A Constructional Account and a Diachronic Investigation, by Amanda Patten <a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=osXnUXXI5ekC&pg=PA100">Google Books</a></p>
</div>
<div class="m10">And another, although perhaps not from a linguistics book:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<ul>
<li>It is these books which challenge his views.
</li>
</ul>
<p>Mastering English: An Advanced Grammar for Non-native and Native Speakers <a href="https://books.google.pl/books?id=6aZkZqlWeo8C&pg=PA260">Google Books</a></p>
</div>
<div class="m10">In a linguistics paper, an unnamed author at Simon Fraser University, British Columbia lists these possibilities, including <span class="bQ">which, in which, whom</span> and <span class="bQ">whose</span>:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<ul>
<li>It was the man Ø/that/who/whom I saw first.</li>
<li>It was the book Ø/that/which I read first.</li>
<li>It was the young man whose dog died last summer.</li>
<li>It was the red folder in which we found the clue.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="http://www.sfu.ca/~hedberg/Chapter_4.pdf"> (PDF)</a></p>
</div>
<div class="m10">And from the same source we have a couple with <span class="bQ">where</span> and one with <span class="bQ">when</span>. These examples are part of the author's argument that <span class="bQ">it</span>-clefts can take the same introductory words as defining relative clauses, in opposition to some other linguists, Delahunty, Rochemont and Heggie, who have apparently put forward the idea that the second clause in an <span class="bQ">it</span>-cleft is not in fact a relative clause, but something different, where <span class="bQ">that</span> is the basic opener, and they disallow <span class="bQ">where</span> and <span class="bQ">when</span>, for example. This theory might explain why <span class="bQ">which</span> isn't used so much, but doesn't really account for the common (and uncontroversial) use of <span class="bQ">who</span> in <span class="bQ">it</span>-clefts.</div>
<div class="cite4">
<ul>
<li class="m10">It is here where the hearty French established a settlement along the frothy
St. Lawrence River and survived the first relentless winter.<br />
<span class="nml">[Insight Guide to Canada, p. 15]</span></li>
<li class="m10">Yet it is precisely on this point where Ahlquist and I must part company.<br />
<span class="nml">[Minneapolis Star and Tribune, Op-ed page, 8/22/87]</span></li>
<li class="m10">It’s the summer term when you’re really stuck.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="m10">Arguably, the two examples with <span class="bQ">where</span> are not typical <span class="bQ">it</span>-clefts, as we are not comparing <span class="bQ">here</span> with anywhere else, or <span class="bQ">this point</span> with any other point, and wouldn't be laying any particular stress on those words. But the fact that they could be made into non-clefts (by removing the <span class="bQ">it is ... that</span> structure and putting the emphasised element back into its normal position) seems to confirm their cleft status (as I understand it):</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>The hearty French established a settlement here ...</li>
<li>Yet Ahlquist and I must part company precisely on this point.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">And finally, I found a paper, <em>Relatives and Pronouns in the English Cleft Construction</em>, by Matthew Reeve 2007. Strangely he doesn't say an awful lot about the actual pronouns used, but in comparing them with those used in defining relative clauses he gives this list of <span class="bQ">wh</span>-words (and of course adding that and zero). </div>
<div class="cite4">
<em>which, who(m), (?)where, (?)when, *how, *why</em>
</div>
<div class="m10">Suggesting that <span class="bQ">whom</span> and <span class="bQ">which</span> are standard, but that there is some question over <span class="bQ">when</span> and <span class="bQ">where</span>. He gives these example sentences, where ? before a word suggests that it is a questionable choice, and an asterisk (*) means he considers it ungrammatical.</div>
<div class="cite4">
<ul>
<li class="m10">It was a picture of John which/that he decorated his door with.</li>
<li class="m10">It was in the Kruger National Park ?where/that the mongoose caught the snake.</li>
<li class="m10">It was in 1997 ?when/that Tony Blair became Prime Minister.</li>
<li class="m10">It was with a picture of John *which/that he decorated his door.</li>
</ul>
<p>Relatives and Pronouns in the English Cleft Construction, Matthew Reeve 2007 <a href="http://www.google.pl/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCIQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2Fpals%2Fresearch%2Flinguistics%2Fpublications%2Fwpl%2F07papers%2Fuclwpl_19_Reeve&ei=h2yRVMyCF8OqU8OugNgJ&usg=AFQjCNEuOMZd4mgvPx0ghzOVml2x_fMdAg&sig2=xOAXj4Rwfp8K9fMrtNiJ-w&bvm=bv.82001339,d.d24">PDF</a></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Summary</h3>
<h4><em>that</em></h4>
<div class="m10">This is by far the common word used to introduce the relative clause part in an <span class="bQ">it</span>-cleft sentence. It can be used to refer to both things and people as well as after adverbial phrases. The only time I can see where it is not possible is when <span class="bQ">whose</span> is used, but as they show at CaGEL, there is still a more comon variant with a possessive and <span class="bQ">that</span>. </div>
<h4><em>who</em></h4>
<div class="m10">Although less common than <span class="bQ">that</span>, <span class="bQ">who</span> can always be used when referring to people, both subject and object (as in defining relative clauses). There is a suggestion (by Thomson and Martine) that <span class="bQ">that</span> is more common after proper nouns (names etc) when they refer to the object of the relative clause - <span class="bQ">It was Ann that I saw</span>.</div>
<h4>zero</h4>
<div class="m10">The zero pronoun (omission) is always possible when referring to the object of the relative clause - <span class="bQ">It was Ann I saw</span>, <span class="bQ">It was my biscuits you ate</span>.</div>
<h4><em>which</em></h4>
<div class="m10">Although sometimes possible, and specifically allowed by many sources, <span class="bQ">which</span> is not nearly so commonly used as <span class="bQ">that</span>, and is probably better avoided by learners.</div>
<h4><em>whose</em></h4>
<div class="m10">It's possible to use <span class="bQ">whose</span>, but its use is rare, and there's a more usual workaround using a possessive and <span class="bQ">that</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>It was Sam whose advice I wanted, not yours!</li>
<li>It was Sam's advice I wanted, not yours!</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>whom</em></h4>
<div class="m10">Several sources show <span class="bQ">whom</span> as being possible, but its use is rare and formal (many native speakers, me included, find <span class="bQ">whom</span> rather stilted and old-fashioned). As in defining relative clauses, we generally prefer <span class="bQ">who</span> or zero (nothing) - as <span class="bQ">whom</span> is only ever used to refer to the object it can always be omitted - see the example from CaGEL.</div>
<h4><em>when</em> and <em>where</em></h4>
<div class="m10">Probably the most problematic. Some authorities accept <span class="bQ">when</span> and <span class="bQ">where</span> in an informal style, but there appears to be some discussion among linguists as to whether they can be used in true <span class="bQ">it</span>-clefts, arguments that are far too technical for me! And they don't seem to get mentioned in either CGEL or CaGEL. Again, workarounds with <span class="bQ">that</span> (or zero) are usually possible, although you might have to add a preposition:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10">It was the living room where I left it, not the kitchen.<br />
It was in the living room (that) I left it, not (in) the kitchen.</li>
<li class="m10" >It's next Monday when he's leaving, not next Tuesday.<br />
It's next Monday (that) he's leaving, not next Tuesday.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Conclusions</h3>
<div class="m10">There doesn't really seem to be an easy answer to my original question - it rather depends on who you ask.</div>
<div class="m10">As for my lesson, on one hand, yes, I was being too categorical in dismissing <span class="bQ">which</span> for things without an explanation, but on the other, I think I would still advise foreign learners to stick to using <span class="bQ">that</span>, and optionally using <span class="bQ">who</span> and the zero option where appropriate, especially in tests and written work. As well as being less commonly used, <span class="bQ">which</span> seems to have some restrictions on its use, <span class="bQ">whom</span> is hardly ever necessary, <span class="bQ">whose</span> is possible but a bit unwieldy, and <span class="bQ">when</span> and <span class="bQ">where</span> seem rather problematic.</div>
<div class="m10">And there's an added bonus in sticking to <span class="bQ">that</span> alone; it's much simpler to learn.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Addendum</h3>
<div class="m10">We saw that in <em>The Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</em>, the authors suggest that a sentence like '<span class="bQ">It was the dog to which I gave the water</span>' can only be read as a defining (restrictive) relative clause identifying the dog, and not as a cleft sentence, comparing it with '<span class="bQ">It was the dog I gave the water to</span>', which, as I read it, could be seen as either a cleft sentence or a defining relative clause, depending on intonation (stress)</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10">It was <span class="ul">the dog</span> I gave the water to.<br />
<span class="nml">(as opposed to the cat, for example - cleft sentence)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ul">It</span> was the dog I gave the water to.<br />
<span class="nml">(this dog, not that other dog over there - defining relative clause identifying the dog)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But I don't fully understand the difference, and I'm not quite sure how this would apply to <span class="bQ">whom</span> after a preposition, as in the CaGEL example, which although very formal, is, I would have thought unambiguously an <span class="bQ">it</span>-cleft - <span class="bQ">It's the president to whom I'm referring</span>. But that's another story.</div>
</div>
<h3>Related post</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2012/04/emphasis-focussing-with-cleft-sentences.html">Emphasis - Focussing with cleft sentences</a></li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-76427437053249798752014-12-06T16:17:00.000+01:002014-12-08T19:08:32.472+01:00Watching on as an expression takes root<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">Here are a few quotes from the British media:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>But detectives watched on as he landed and hid on the plane for two hours, before flying off to escape justice.<br />
<span class="nml">The Guardian, Feb 2008</span></li>
<li>Fulham captain Brede Hangeland cannot wait to return to action on Monday after the unusual experience of watching on from the sidelines.<br />
<span class="nml">The Independent, Dec 2012</span></li>
<li>But watching on from the performance boat it's immediately apparent that our boys are struggling into the breeze<br />
<span class="nml">The Daily Telegraph, Sep 2013</span></li>
<li>Chris Hughton, the Norwich manager, watched on as Gary Hooper scored and Fraser Forster saved a penalty in win<br />
<span class="nml">The Times, Jan 2013</span></li>
<li>The 45-year-old had been watching on from the coastline.<br />
<span class="nml">The Daily Mail, Sep 2014</span></li>
<li>Boris Becker watched on as defending champ Novak Djokovic made light work of Slovakian Lukas Lacko<br />
<span class="nml">The Sun, Jan 2014</span></li>
<li>With Olympic champion and world record holder Usain Bolt watching on from the stands<br />
<span class="nml">BBC, Aug 2014</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">What's this with <span class="bQ">watching on</span>? Don't we usually say <span class="bQ">looking on</span>? A contributor at the language forum <em>Pain in the English</em> wondered about the apparently increasing popularity of this expression amongst sports people (hat tip to 'Hairy Scot'). Not having noticed it before, I decided to investigate.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">The first ten results in a Google search for <span class="bQ">watching on from</span> were from:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Warrington Wolves (rugby league)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Twitter (American football)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Twitter (football)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">A Canadian website (World Cup football)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">West Ham World (football)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Total Barca (football - Suárez: “<em>You feel helpless watching on from afar</em>”)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Daily Mail (football)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Facebook (football - the Suarez quote again)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">So, it certainly seems to be mainly (though not only) connected with sport, and it looks as though it might be a principally British phenomenon. Site searches of various media sites confirmed this: </div>
<table class="grammarTable" style="margin:10px auto;">
<tr class="bQ"><td></td><td>watching on from</td><td>looking on from</td><td class="nml">earliest</td><td>watched on as</td><td class="nml">earliest</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="6" class="instr">British media</td></tr>
<tr><td>The BBC</td><td>40</td><td>72</td><td>2006</td><td>53</td><td>2003</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Guardian</td><td>10</td><td>48</td><td>2003</td><td>31</td><td>2008</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Independent</td><td>7</td><td>54</td><td>2009</td><td>40</td><td>1998</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Telegraph</td><td>40</td><td>82</td><td>2003</td><td>77</td><td>2001</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Times</td><td>1</td><td>8</td><td>2013</td><td>15</td><td>2005</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Daily Mail</td><td>33</td><td>75</td><td>2010</td><td>154</td><td>2006</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Sun</td><td>3</td><td>1</td><td>2008</td><td>11</td><td>2007</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Express</td><td>18</td><td>7</td><td>2007</td><td>59</td><td>2007</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Mirror</td><td>29</td><td>20</td><td>2010</td><td>84</td><td>2006</td></tr>
<tr><td>Four Four Two</td><td>28</td><td>5</td><td>2011</td><td>45</td><td>2013</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="3" class="instr">US media</td></tr>
<tr><td>The New York Times</td><td>0</td><td>73</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Washington Post</td><td>0</td><td>66</td></tr>
<tr><td>The LA Times</td><td>0</td><td>11</td></tr>
<tr><td>Fox News</td><td>0</td><td>28</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="3" class="instr">Social media</td></tr>
<tr><td>Facebook</td><td>71</td><td>171</td></tr>
<tr><td>Twitter</td><td>94</td><td>90</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="m10">Comparisons with <span class="bQ">looked on as</span> are pretty meaningless since it is often used with the meaning of <span class="bQ">considered as</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">There are a few examples from the first decade of the century, but the vast bulk of examples come from 2011-2014, so I think we can say that this is pretty recent phenomenon. Honour for the earliest example of <span class="bQ">watching on from</span> goes to an article from the Press Association about a rugby international between New Zealand's All Blacks and Canada at the 2003 Rugby World Cup, in Melbourne, printed in the Daily Telegraph and the Guardian:</div>
<div class="cite4">Watching on from the sidelines was Ben Blair, whose World Cup future was thrown into doubt just hours before the kick-off<p><a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/2423488/Mulianina-shines-for-All-Blacks.html">Daily Telegraph 2003</a>, <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2003/oct/17/rugbyworldcup2003.rugbyunion11">The Guardian, 2003</a></p></div>
<div class="m10">But <span class="bQ">watched on as</span> seems to both predate <span class="bQ">watching on from</span>, and be used more often.</div>
<div class="cite4">Chalmers ended with a closing round two-under-par 70 for a 72-hole total of even-par 288 then watched on as his two nearest rivals both missed birdie attempts which would have forced a play-off.<p>The Independent,1998</p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Finding suitable collocations</h3>
<div class="m10">The next step was to see to what extent this usage has occurred in books, how old it is, and whether it has been mainly used in connection with sport, by searching Google Books. But there was a small problem.</div>
<div class="m10">In the vast majority of cases, <span class="bQ">on</span> in <span class="bQ">watching on</span> and <span class="bQ">watched on</span> is a preposition, and is followed by a determiner such as <span class="bQ">the, my, this</span> etc. To wade through all these looking for <span class="bQ">watch on</span> in the meaning of <span class="bQ">look on from the sidelines</span> would be like looking for a needle in a haystack, so we need some additional filter. Luckily there are a few conjunctions and prepositions that often follow it in the meaning we are interested in.</div>
<h4>Four Four Two</h4>
<div class="m10">Four Four Two is a British football magazine and website, and seems to be where the expression <span class="bQ">watching on</span> is most at home, so I had a look to see how they were using it.</div>
<div class="m10">There were 85 examples of <span class="bQ">watched on</span>, 53 of <span class="bQ">watching on</span>, and 49 of <span class="bQ">watch on</span>,and a handful for <span class="bQ">watches on</span>. As far as I could see, most of these used <span class="bQ">on</span> adverbially. The more usual <span class="bQ">looking on from</span> hardly gets a look-in,</div>
<div class="m10">I looked at the first ten genuine entries for each form. For <span class="bQ">watched on</span>, there was one participle clause and nine finite verbs. The most popular word to follow <span class="bQ">on</span> was <span class="bQ">as</span>, with 8 instances, then one instance of <span class="bQ">with</span> and one of a following adverb.</div>
<div class="m10">For <span class="bQ">watching on</span>, we have eight participle clauses, and two finite verbs. In eight cases <span class="bQ">watching on</span> is followed by <span class="bQ">from</span>, in one by <span class="bQ">as</span>, and one by <span class="bQ">after</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">In six cases, <span class="bQ">watch on</span> is followed by <span class="bQ">as</span>, in three by <span class="bQ">from</span>, and one by an adverb.</div>
<h4>Netspeak</h4>
<div class="m10">So I first decided that my line of enquiry should concentrate on <span class="bQ">watch / watching / watched on</span> followed by <span class="bQ">from</span> and <span class="bQ">as</span>. But there was another way to do it, which was to look at how <span class="bQ">look on</span> is used when not followed by a determiner. This is what I found at the collocation finder, Netspeak, which confirmed <span class="bQ">as</span> and <span class="bQ">from</span>, but meant that I should also consider <span class="bQ">in</span> and <span class="bQ">with</span> (the comma and fullstop are impossible to search for at Google Books: </div>
<table class="grammarTable" style="margin:10px auto;">
<tr class="bQ"><td>look on</td><td>looking on</td><td>looked on</td></tr>
<tr><td>as</td><td>,</td><td>as</td></tr>
<tr><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr>
<tr><td>,</td><td>in</td><td>,</td></tr>
<tr><td>in</td><td>with</td><td>in</td></tr>
<tr><td>with</td><td>from</td><td>with</td></tr>
<tr><td>from</td><td>as</td><td>from</td></tr>
</table>
<h4>Ngram</h4>
<div class="m10">Finally, I had a look at look on at Ngram, and the top non-determiner collocations were: <span class="bQ">look on and</span>; <span class="bQ">looked on as, with, in</span>; <span class="bQ">looking on with, and, in</span>. This gave me five variations to look at - <span class="bQ">as, from, in, with, and</span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>Looking on</em> and <em>watching on</em> at Ngram</h3>
<div class="m10">The top non-determiner collocations at Ngram for <span class="bQ">looked on</span> and <span class="bQ">looking on</span> are <span class="bq">as</span> and <span class="bQ">with</span> respectively, so I compared them with their <span class="bQ">watching on</span> equivalents, which barely figure: </div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=looked+on+as%2Clooking+on+with%2Cwatched+on+as%2Cwatching+on+as&year_start=1800&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Clooked%20on%20as%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Clooking%20on%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cwatched%20on%20as%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cwatching%20on%20with%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="m10">But when we look at <span class="bQ">watched on</span> and <span class="bQ">watching on</span> (with suitable collocates) in more recent years, we can see that something is definitely happening:</div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=watched+on+as%2Cwatching+on+with%2Cwatching+on+from%2Cwatching+on+in%2Cwatching+on+and&year_start=1970&year_end=2008&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cwatched%20on%20as%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cwatching%20on%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cwatching%20on%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cwatching%20on%20and%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="m10">There are no instances, unfortunately, of <span class="bQ">watching on from</span> in the Ngram corpus. It must be remembered, however, that Ngram only covers a small percentage of the books digitised by Google. So for real results we need to look at Google Books, where we can also make very time-specific searches (although we have to be aware that quite a few of the books at Google Books have been misdated). </div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>Looking on</em> goes well back before 1800</h3>
<div class="m10">But first let's have a look at <span class="bQ">look on</span> with the meaning of watching something from the sidelines. How old is it? At Google Books, there are four examples of <span class="bQ">looked on as</span> and one of <span class="bQ">looking on as</span> before 1800, but these all have the meaning of 'considered as'.</div>
<div class="m10">Other variations are more promising. The earliest example I can find with our meaning is one of <span class="bQ">looking on in</span>, from 1601</div>
<div class="cite4">"But though I used the best expedition I could yet Tyrone
did attempt us in our drawing of[f], with no great gaming of
either side though so unwilling he was any more to meddle that
he hynge [?] looking on in the Fews."<p><em>Calendar of the State Papers relating to Ireland</em>, 1601</p></div>
<div class="m10">There are five verifible examples of <span class="bQ">looking on (and)</span>, the earliest from 1677</div>
<div class="cite4">... which I cou'd not be weary of looking on, and observing its motion that lasted near four Hours<p><em>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</em>, London 1677</p></div>
<div class="m10">There is an early example of <span class="bQ">looking on from</span> (but only one before 1800):</div>
<div class="cite4">The King of France looking on from the Hill of Saronne<p><em>The Earl of Castlemaine's Memoirs of the Irish Wars</em>, 1681</p></div>
<div class="m10"> We do rather better with <span class="bQ">looking on with</span> - two indisputable examples, both with the meaning we are after (and two misdated), the earliest, although listed as 1662, appears to be from 1708</div>
<div class="cite4">After sunset, at the top of the mast, suddenly appeared a little fire, about the size of a big candle's flame, which made about the same noise as an ascending rocket; it lasted for about one good quarter of an hour, and we were looking on with great attention<p>From a narrative by Baron Christoph von Graffenried, 1708, in T<em>he Colonial Records of North Carolina</em>, Vol 1, 1884</p></div>
<div class="m10">The next is from 1746</div>
<div class="cite4">If the balance of power were in 'any danger, the empire would not stand neutral, nor would the princes thereof stand looking on with such unconcern.<p><em>The Scots Magazine</em>, 1746</p></div>
<div class="cite4">and therefore he addresses himself immediately to the crowd, and reproaches the delay of those, who stupidly looked on<p>The Universal Magazine, London, 1748</p></div>
<div class="cite4">All three looked on with curiosity, anticipating much diversion<p><em>The Tatler,or Lubrications of Isaac Bickerstaffe, Esq</em>, Sir Richarsd Steele, Joseph Addison, London, 1764</p></div>
<div class="m10">So I think we can say that this meaning of <span class="bQ">look on</span> was well established before 1800.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>Watching on</em> at Google Books</h3>
<div class="m10">There are no hits at GoogleBooks for any of the variations between 1500 and 1799. For the rest, I've ignored <span class="bQ">watch on</span>, as there are too many referring to watches, whether of the wrist type or the nautical type. I've also ignored things like <span class="bQ">watching on and on / on and off</span>. These include simple <span class="bQ">watching / watched on</span> followed by a full stop or comma when the next clause or sentence starts with the target preposition / conjunction</div>
<table class="grammarTable" style="margin:10px auto;">
<tr class="bQ"><td></td><td>as</td><td>from</td><td>in</td><td>with</td><td>and</td></tr>
<tr><td>19th century - <span class="bQ">watched on</span></td><td>3</td><td>1</td><td>21</td><td>13</td><td>31</td></tr>
<tr><td>19th century - <span class="bQ">watching on</span></td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>2</td></tr>
<tr><td>1900-1949 - <span class="bQ">watched on</span></td><td>2</td><td>5</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>3</td></tr>
<tr><td>1900-1949 - <span class="bQ">watching on</span></td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr>
<tr><td>1950-1974 - <span class="bQ">watched on</span></td><td>6</td><td>2</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>1</td></tr>
<tr><td>1950-1974 - <span class="bQ">watching on</span></td><td>4</td><td>0</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>4</td></tr>
<tr><td>1975-1999 - <span class="bQ">watched on</span></td><td>27</td><td>13</td><td>29</td><td>5</td><td>9</td></tr>
<tr><td>1975-1999 - <span class="bQ">watching on</span></td><td>16</td><td>2</td><td>12</td><td>7</td><td>5</td></tr>
<tr><td>2000-2014 - <span class="bQ">watched on</span></td><td>10</td><td>5</td><td>7</td><td>7</td><td>7</td></tr>
<tr><td>2000-2014 - <span class="bQ">watching on</span></td><td>8</td><td>7</td><td>1</td><td>8</td><td>4</td></tr>
</table>
<h4>Nineteenth Century</h4>
<div class="m10">The earliest I could find was from 1820.</div>
<div class="cite4">Who, when surrounded was with spies,<br />
All watching on with Argus eyes<p><em>The Republican</em>, London, 1820</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Nella too was glad to be spared all speech, and the cousins watched on in silence<p><em>Sir Michael Paulet</em>, Ellen Pickering, London, 1845</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Still I watched on, with unabated vigilance, deep into the night.<p><em>Cat and Dog</em>, London, 1854</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Till, worried out with watching on in vain, We fall to sleep, <p><em>The Living Age</em>, Boston, 1867</p></div>
<div class="cite4">There we stood, in mute affliction<br />
Watching on from day to day
<p><em>The Deserted Chamber</em>, from <em>Alice and other poems</em>, Francis Reginald Slatham, London, 1868</p></div>
<div class="cite4">She sat watching on as they gave up the sport
<p><em>The Englishman's Magazine of Literature, Religion, Science and Art</em>, London 1865</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Wait ! fear not ! she cries, Watch on with trusting eyes<p>The Cornhill Magazine, London, 1867</p></div>
<div class="cite4">It's as weel I didna lippen to ye to tak' my place," she mentally observed, as she watched on from hour to hour<p><em>Auld Fernies's Son</em>, Mary Charlotte J leith, 1881</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Juno watched on, and when at last nothing could be seen, she waved her handkerchief<p>Masterman Ready, Frederick Marryat, London, 1885</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Would the old ones last until the new ones came? brooded the fascinated Guy, watching on as one possessed
<p><em>The English Illustrated Magazine</em>, 1893</p></div>
<div class="cite4">We watched on as the blaze drove eastwards<p><em>Pearson's Magazine</em>, London, 1896</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Our interest in each other will not cease at commencement day, but we will watch on as the years go by.<p><em>The Michigan Alumnus</em>, 1899</p></div>
<div class="m10">The expression, then, was definitely used in the nineteenth century, but examples are few and far between, especially when compared with <span class="bQ">look on</span>. And at this time there is certainly no specific connection with sport.</div>
<h4>Twentieth century - first half</h4>
<div class="m10">I found just over twenty examples, none of them to do with sport.</div>
<div class="cite4">... he generally sets the younger ones to do the robbery while he is watching on and giving warning of the police<p><em>Parliamentary Papers</em>, London, 1908</p></div>
<div class="cite4">The Faun watched on with wide eyes, for his dayeyes are narrow and sleepy, but his night-eyes are wide and keen, the seers of wild shy secrets, the beholders of celestial descents.<p><em>Gods and Wood Things</em>, Leslie Holdsworth Allen,London 1913</p></div>
<div class="cite4">I have heard of European officers having actually asked their servants to beat respectable Indians — themselves watching on ! <p><em>India Arisen</em>, Thanwardas Lilaram Vaswani, 1922</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Mr. Hendrix, still preserving his finest courtroom manner of Reason and Superiority, watched on in silence and fell to wondering what he had ever seen in this redheaded, almost illiterate creature with her muscular legs and childish face to have ever considered her charming or desirable<p><em>Actor's Blood</em>, Ben Hecht, 1936</p></div>
<h4>Twentieth century - third quarter</h4>
<div class="m10">Around 27 examples, only two connected with sport, both American (I think):</div>
<div class="cite4">R. L. M. Kirkwood watched on from the centre of the ring while hundreds of people watched with excitement this Calf Scramble.<p><em>The Farmer</em>,1950</p></div>
<div class="cite4">A crowd of 49,936 watched on in 105° heat as the Nationals scored their 19th All-Star win against 17 losses and one tie.<p><em>Brittanica Book of the Year</em> 1967</p></div>
<div class="cite4">... and the Indian police present watched on with folded arms, without intervening at all.<p>Notes, Memoranda and Letters, <em>Indian Ministry of External Affairs</em>, 1959</p></div>
<h4>Twentieth century - fourth quarter</h4>
<div class="m10">With around 125 examples of watched on and watching on with the meaning we are interested in between 1975 and 2000, we can see a distinct increase in the last quarter of the twentieth century. However, hardly any are to do with sport, a lot appear to be American, and a lot are from fiction. Here are the only sports related examples I could find:</div>
<div class="cite4">... the drivers, the flag marshals waving two yellow flags to warn the other competitors that the track was completely blocked, and the stunned, shuffling silence of the crowd, watching on in horror.<p><em>Race for revenge</em>, Lynsey Stevens, 1982</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Watching on as McKechnie made his point at national level for the first time, his Southland Boys' High School coach Clive Williams recalled how he had been drawn to his ability seven years earlier.<p><em>McKechnie, Double All Black: An Autobiography</em>, New Zealand, 1983</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Itagaki was an active supporter of sumo wrestling, but the white-haired old man who regularly watched on from the gallery at the Kokugikan arena appeared to be a living fossil from the distant past.<p><em>Five political leaders of modern Japan</em>, various authors, 1986</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Jealousy will manifest itself like parents in a fist fight at a little league game with the little leaguers watching on in disbelief.<p><em>The American Racing Pigeon News</em>, 1987</p></div>
<div class="cite4">And now, with Savage as the WWF's deluded monarch putting his entire existence, his reason for being on the line, she had returned, watching on from the sidelines<p>Article dated 1991, from <em>The Complete WWF Video Guide Volume II</em> (2012), Christine Simonotti</p></div>
<div class="cite4">The big game for the Vega Longhorns. The crowd watched on in the balmy Texas panhandle <p><em>Hey Cowboy, Wanna Get Lucky?</em>, Baxter Black, 1995</p></div>
<h4>Twenty-first century</h4>
<div class="m10">Up until 2000, I've only been able to find seven examples connected with sport. The first fourteen years of this century yield nine: four about American sports, one about golf, two about cricket, and two about football. Hardly the surge, nor the bias towards football or Britain, that might have been expected from its use in the media.</div>
<div class="cite4">With the Wildcats taking a one-nil lead in the three-game series, Heal will be watching on with close interest as he considers rejoining the league where he launched his international career.<p><em>The Bulletin</em>, 2000</p></div>
<div class="cite4">And that's exactly what happened, with Boone watching on from the sideline. The Titans beat the Steelers 34-31 in overtime the next night in one of the wildest games ever played at the Coliseum.<p><em>Tales from the Titans Sideline</em>, Jim Wyat, US 2004</p></div>
<div class="cite4">... was Nick Faldo and Freddie Couples, Davis Love and Gary Player, all of them tinkering away as a hushed crowd of a couple of hundred fans watched on from the grandstand.<p><em>John Daly: The Biography</em>, Gavin Newsham, 2005</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Watching on with not so benevolent interest is Vaughn (Wayne Brady), a former NBA agent who makes serious money handling the big money betting that surrounds the matches.<p><em>The Holywood Reporter</em>, 2006</p></div>
<div class="cite4">The greatest crowd of the week watched on, and they were heart and soul with the blue-eyed, golden-haired Englishman, who performed prodigies of court covering, but lacked the knowledge of tennis tactics to press home victory.<p><em>All-Round Genius: The Unknown Story of Britain's Greatest Sportsman</em>, Mick Collins, 2007</p></div>
<div class="cite4">The setting could not have been more perfect: a hill-country town he loves, with a large family he adores, all watching on from the main pavilion.<p><em>Brick</em>, 2007</p></div>
<div class="cite4">There is a gulf separating the two 'traditions', between the political and cultural drivers that animate their fans watching on from the sidelines, and the reality of the sporting action on the field.<p><em>El Clasico: Barcelona V Real Madrid: Football's Greatest Rivalry</em>, Richard Fitzpatrick, London 2012</p></div>
<div class="cite4">The plodding nature of the football and the thousand or so passive looking souls watching on from the bleachers hint that the real nature of this rivalry might be somewhat less intense.<p><em>Of Garrisons and Goalscorers</em>, Hugo Saye, Bloomington,Indiana, 2012</p></div>
<div class="cite4">October (2006) started with a memorial service for Peter Osgood that was held on the Stamford Bridge pitch, with those attending watching on from the Lower Shed.<p><em>Making History, Not Reliving It: A decade of Roman's rule at Chelsea</em>, Mark Worrall, Kelvin Barker, David Johnstone, UK 2013</p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Conclusions</h3>
<div class="m10">The expression <span class="bQ">look on</span>, as in '<em>watch from a distance</em>', goes back to least to 1601. A variation, <span class="bQ">watch on</span>, has been used very occasionally in books since around 1820, but with nothing like the frequency of <span class="bQ">look on</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">In the vast majority of cases, this use of <span class="bQ">watch on</span> in books is unconnected with sport: I've only been able to find sixteen sports-related examples at Google Books, with the earliest from 1950. Of these only two are to do with football, the area where it seems to be primarily used in the media, and both of those are recent, 2012 and 2013.</div>
<div class="m10">It appears to have started being used in connection with sport, and especially football, in the British media in the early years of this century. The earliest I've been able to find are from 1998 (<span class="bQ">watched on as</span>) and 2003 (<span class="bQ">watched on from</span>), but it didn't really take off till about 2012, most examples being from 2013-2014. It looks just too new to have really made it into books yet.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Appendix 1 - Site searches of British media</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22watching+on+from%22+site%3Awww.bbc.co.uk">The BBC</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22watching+on+from%22+site%3Awww.guardian.co.uk">The Guardian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22watching+on+from%22+site%3Awww.independent.co.uk">The Independent</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22watching+on+from%22+site%3Awww.telegraph.co.uk">The Daily Telegraph</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22watching+on+from%22+site%3Awww.thetimes.co.uk">The Times</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22watching+on+from%22+site%3Awww.dailymail.co.uk">The Daily Mail</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22watching+on+from%22+site%3Awww.thesun.co,uk">The Sun</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22watching+on+from%22+site%3Awww.express.co.uk">The Express</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22watching+on+from%22+site%3Awww.mirror.co.uk">The Mirror</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22watching+on+from%22+site%3Awww.fourfourtwo.com">Four Four Two</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Appendix 2 - Four Four Two</h3>
<h4>watched on</h4>
<ul>
<li>and he watched on as Johnson finally broke Stoke's resistance</li>
<li>And he then watched on with joy as his header just cleared Caner Erkin</li>
<li>Guardiola watched on as ...</li>
<li>as banned coach Diego Simeone watched on helplessly</li>
<li>he also watched on as Ryan Taylor ...</li>
<li>Kluivert ... has watched on with interest</li>
<li>Having watched on as France beat Portugal and Armenia in recent weeks</li>
<li>Van Gaal watched on as his side beat Valencia 2-1</li>
<li>Hodgson watched on ... as England toiled to a 1-0 friendly win over Norway</li>
<li>The Barcelona boss watched on as the Argentine superstar netted a hat-trick</li>
</ul>
<h4>watching on</h4>
<ul>
<li>Watching on from afar will be Tosh Farrell</li>
<li>with Roy Hodgson watching on from the White Hart Lane stands</li>
<li>watching on as a dominant Juventus won three consecutive titles</li>
<li>Russell Slade, who was watching on from the stands at Bloomfield Road</li>
<li>with England manager Roy Hodgson watching on from the stands</li>
<li>The controversial Italy international ..., watching on from the stands</li>
<li>Munsterman will be watching on from the Netherlands on Saturday</li>
<li>Jones will join Emanuele Giaccherini in watching on from the sidelines</li>
<li>With new signing Mario Balotelli watching on after completing his move from Milan</li>
<li>Watching on from the comfort of his sofa ... was Georges Leekens</li>
</ul>
<h4>watch on</h4>
<ul>
<li>Robins will not officially take over until Monday, so must watch on from the stands</li>
<li>for years they've had to watch on forlornly as quality player after quality player was sold</li>
<li>Manuel Pellegrini could only watch on from the stands</li>
<li>with Given left to watch on from the bench</li>
<li>Fraser Forster could only watch on as the ball curled over</li>
<li>and had to watch on as Klinsmann's men qualified</li>
<li>and had to watch on as his team-mates were routed 7-1</li>
<li>and had to watch on as his team sealed a 2-1 victory</li>
<li>the Hull manager could only watch on as Harry Kane equalised</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Afterthought - crash-blossom, or just a participle with an ambiguous subject?</h3>
<div class="m10">I started this post with a quote from the Guardian:</div>
<div class="cite4">But detectives watched on as he landed and hid on the plane for two hours, before flying off to escape justice.</div>
<div class="m10">I assume it wasn't the detectives who flew off to escape justice. (<a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=crash+blossom">Google Search - "crash blossom"</a>)</div>
</div>
<h3>Related posts</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2014/06/random-thoughts-on-early-doors.html">Early doors</a> - another football expression</li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2014/05/the-team-are-collective-nouns-in.html">The team are - collective nouns in British English</a></li>
</ul>
<h3>Links</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://painintheenglish.com/case/5344">Pain in the English</a></li>
<li><a href="http://docsouth.unc.edu/csr/index.html/document/csr01-0486">University of North Carolina</a> - Narrative by Baron Christoph von Graffenried, 1708</li>
<li><a href="http://www.netspeak.org/#query=looked+on+%253F">Netspeak</a> - looked on</li>
<li><a href="http://www.netspeak.org/#query=looking+on+%253F">Netspeak</a> - looking on</li>
<li><a href="https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=look+on+*%2Clooking+on+*%2Clooked+on+*&year_start=1970&year_end=2008&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t2%3B%2Clook%20on%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Blook%20on%20his%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blook%20on%20the%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blook%20on%20her%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blook%20on%20your%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blook%20on%20my%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blook%20on%20their%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blook%20on%20it%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blook%20on%20him%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blook%20on%20a%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blook%20on%20this%3B%2Cc0%3B.t2%3B%2Clooking%20on%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Blooking%20on%20the%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooking%20on%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooking%20on%20at%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooking%20on%20from%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooking%20on%20and%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooking%20on%20to%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooking%20on%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooking%20on%20as%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooking%20on%20a%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooking%20on%20it%3B%2Cc0%3B.t2%3B%2Clooked%20on%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Blooked%20on%20as%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooked%20on%20the%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooked%20on%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooked%20on%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooked%20on%20him%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooked%20on%20it%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooked%20on%20and%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooked%20on%20her%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooked%20on%20them%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Blooked%20on%20his%3B%2Cc0">Ngram</a> - collocations with <span class="bQ">look on, looked on, looking on</span></li>
</ul>
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Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-35045725182422297212014-11-30T13:15:00.000+01:002015-03-23T16:11:34.842+01:00Relative infinitive clauses - uses and exercises<style type="text/css">
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' --></style>')
ttxt=ttxtA.join("\n")
var ttxt=ttxt+"</head><body>"+mtxt+"</div></body></html>"
myWindow=window.open()
myWindow.document.write(ttxt)
myWindow.document.close()
}
/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
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//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
var ansA=[]
ansA[1]=["the latest player to have signed","the first athlete to break","the only person to have won","first to arrive and the last","the most famous actor to have signed","The next one of you lot to make a sound","thing to have happened","to question the official line","woman to have received","last person to see him","the first to be selected","second person to have asked me"]
ansA[2]=["the person to ask","to do is","is the one to watch","the way to do it","to go is in September","is the place to stay"]
ansA[3]=["anybody","dress","nothing","anything","magazine","somewhere","paper","anywhere","place","job","nobody","shoulder"]
ansA[4]=["is still a lot to do","are still one or two points to discuss","will give us plenty to think about","an extensive series of tests to be passed","are several questions still to be answered","have another three matches to win"]
ansA[5]=["to appeal to","a day to remember","to be considered","to solve the problem","to be discussed"]
ansA[6]=["about","in","thing","for","something","somebody","for","of","head","about"]
ansA[7]=["with","place","season","home","time","hat","person","first","time","time","go"]
ansA[8]=["with","for","on","with","in","for","at","for","up","to"]
// -->
</script>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">We can sometimes replace a relative pronoun and finite verb with an infinitive. This is sometimes called a relative infinitive clause, or infinitival relative clause. This happens more often with defining relative clauses, but can also occur with non-defining clauses:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>The first person to speak at the conference was an expert on ...<br />
<span class="nml">(= the first person who spoke ...)</span></li>
<li>Jenny is definitely somebody to keep an eye on.<br />
<span class="nml">(= somebody who you should keep an eye on)</span></li>
<li>The chemist gave her some tablets, to be taken three times a day.<br />
<span class="nml">(= which should be taken / were to be taken)</span>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>When can we do this?</h3>
<div class="m10">There doesn't appear to be a lot of information about this in standard EFL books, but there seem to be two main contexts where we can use an infinitive in a relative clause.</div>
<div class="m10">The first gets some space in advanced grammar books, but the second gets hardly a mention, at least not in the context of relative clauses.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>1. Replacing normal tenses</h3>
<div class="m10">Here, the noun before the infinitive is the subject of the relative infinitive clause:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>My aunt was the first person to leave. <br />
<span class="nml">(= <em>who/that left</em>)</span></li>
<li>The next train to leave from Platform 5 is the 17.30 to Bristol.<br />
<span class="nml">(= <em>which/that leaves</em>)</span></li>
<li>She's the youngest player ever to have been honoured in this way.<br />
<span class="nml">(= <em>who/that has been honoured</em>)</span></li>
<li>He was the only one to finish the course.<br />
<span class="nml">(= <em>who/that finished</em>)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">This is most commonly used with nouns describing general categories, such as <span class="bQ">person, student, bus, one</span> etc. This is only used in defining clauses, and here the infinitive is equivalent to the relative pronoun + verb in a present or past tense. Passives are also possible. The noun before the infinitive is preceded by a 'restrictive' marker. These are:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">ordinal numbers - <span class="bQ">first, second</span> etc;</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">so-called 'general ordinals' - <span class="bQ">next, last, only</span></span></li>
<li><span class="nml">superlative adjectives - <span class="bQ">the best</span> etc</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">It can also occasionally happen with other constructions</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>A significant point to (have) come out of the research<br />
<span class="nml">(= that has come out)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>The use of perfect and continuous infinitives</h4>
<div class="m10">We often seem to have a choice between a simple infinitive and a perfect infinitive. My own feeling is that we are more likely to use a perfect infinitive when we want to stress that an action is finished, but I have no evidence to back that up.</div>
<div class="m10">When replacing present simple we use a simple to-infinitive (1b). When replacing past simple and present perfect we can often use a simple or perfect infinitive without much change in meaning (2b), and the same is true for present perfect (3b). </div>
<ol class="instr">
<li>a <span class="bQ">The next contestant who answers correctly will get a bonus point.</span><br />
b <span class="bQ">The next contestant to answer correctly wil get bonus points.</span></li>
<li>a <span class="bQ">Newton was the first person who understood gravity.</span><br />
b <span class="bQ">Newton was the first person to understand / to have understood gravity.</span> </li>
<li>a <span class="bQ">The only person who has seen her recently is Martin.</span><br />
b <span class="bQ">The only person to see / to have seen her recently is Martin.</span></li>
</ol>
<div class="m10">Present continuous can be replaced by an <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form infinitive (1b). Past continuous can usually be replaced by an <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form infinitive or a perfect<span class="bQ"> -ing</span> form infinitive (2b). But in both cases we're probably more likely to use a reduced relative participle clause (1c, 2c) than an infinitive. </div>
<ol class="instr">
<li>a <span class="bQ">She's the only person who is taking the test.</span><br />
b <span class="bQ">She's the only person to be taking the test.</span><br />
c <span class="bQ">She's the only person taking the test.</span></li>
<li>a <span class="bQ">He was the only person who was living there at the time.</span><br />
b <span class="bQ">He was the only person to be living / to have been living there at the time.</span><br />
c <span class="bQ">He was the only person living there at the time.</span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="printLogo"><span class="logo">Random Idea English</span><br /><span style="color:gray;font-size:80%;">http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com</span></div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv1" style="page-break-before:always;">
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 1</td><td>Rewrite the sentences using a relative infinitive, as in the example. For this exercise, replace perfect tenses with perfect infinitives. Don't use any punctuation. </td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">Eg. </td><td>Emily has recently got married. She is the first of my sisters who has done so.<br>Emily is <span class="textBox" style="padding:2px 40px 2px 5px;color:teal;" type="text">the first of my sisters to have got married</span>.</td><td class="tickBox" ></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>Jones has signed with United. He is the latest player who has done so.<br>Jones is <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,0)" style="width:200px;" type="text"> with United.</td><td class="tickBox" id="ex1TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>Christopher Chatterway broke the four minute mile. He was the first athlete who did.<br>Christopher Chatterway was <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,1)" style="width:200px;" type="text"> the four minute mile.</td><td class="tickBox" id="ex1TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>Marie Curie won a Nobel prize in two different disciplines. She is the only person who has done so.<br>Marie Curie is <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,2)" style="width:200px;" type="text"> a Nobel prize in two different disciplines.</td><td class="tickBox" id="ex1TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>Samantha arrived first and left last.<br>Samantha was the <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,3)" style="width:200px;" type="text"> to leave.</td><td class="tickBox" id="ex1TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>Mike Careless has signed the petition. He is the most famous actor who has signed.<br>Mike Careless is <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap4" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,4)" style="width:300px;" type="text"> the petition</td><td class="tickBox" id="ex1TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>The next one of you lot who makes a sound will have to stay on after class.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex1gap5" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,5)" style="width:300px;" type="text"> will have to stay on after class.</td><td class="tickBox" id="ex1TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>This is the best thing that has happened in a long time.<br>It's the best <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap6" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,6)" style="width:300px;" type="text"> in a long time.</td><td class="tickBox" id="ex1TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>He wasn't the only reporter who questioned the official line.<br>He wasn't the only reporter <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap7" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,7)" style="width:300px;" type="text"></td><td class="tickBox" id="ex1TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>No woman has received this honour before.<br>She is the first <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap8" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,8)" style="width:300px;" type="text"> this honour.</td><td class="tickBox" id="ex1TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>Nobody saw him alive after she did. (person)<br>She was the <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap9" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,9)" style="width:300px;" type="text"> alive.</td><td class="tickBox" id="ex1TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">11. </td><td>They selected him first.<br>He was <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap10" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,10)" style="width:300px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tickBox" id="ex1TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">12. </td><td>Somebody else has already asked me that question today. (person)<br>You are the <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap11" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,11)" style="width:300px;" type="text"> that question today.</td><td class="tickBox" id="ex1TickBox11"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(1)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(1)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(1)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea1"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="printLogo"><span class="logo">Random Idea English</span><br /><span style="color:gray;font-size:80%;">http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com</span></div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>2. Replacing certain modal constructions</h3>
<div class="m10">Relative infinitives are used with certain modal meanings. They often have a similar meaning to - relative pronoun (+ subject pronoun) + modal</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>the person to speak to <span class="nml"> = </span>the person <strong>who you should</strong> speak to</li>
<li>a book to read <span class="nml"> = </span>a book <strong>(that) I can</strong> read</li>
<li>a lot to do <span class="nml"> = </span>a lot <strong>that we need to</strong> do</li>
<li>flavours to suit all tastes<span class="nml"> = </span>flavours <strong>that will</strong> suit all tastes</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>should</em></h3>
<div class="m10">Infinitives can sometimes replace expressions with the meaning of <span class="bQ">should</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>the person to ... <span class="nml"> = </span>the person <strong>who you should</strong> ...</li>
<li>the one to ... <span class="nml"> = </span>the one <strong>that you should</strong> ...</li>
<li>the thing to ... <span class="nml"> = </span>the thing <strong>that we should</strong> ...</li>
<li>the way to ... <span class="nml"> = </span> the way <strong>in which you should</strong> ...</li>
<li>the place to ... <span class="nml"> = </span> the place <strong>where we should</strong> ... </li>
<li>the time to ... <span class="nml"> = </span> th time <strong>when you should</strong> ...</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">We can use this with all persons, and the noun + <span class="bQ">to-</span>infitive combination can either come after the verb <span class="bQ">be</span> or act as the subject.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Mary's the person to talk to.<br />
<span class="nml">(= <em>Mary's the person who/that you should talk to.</em>)</span></li>
<li>The person to talk to is standing over there.<br />
<span class="nml">(= <em>The person who/that you should talk to is standing over there.</em>)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv2">
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 2</td><td>Rewrite the sentences using a relative infinitive, as in the example. Keep active verbs active, and passive verbs passive and don't use any punctuation. </td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">Eg. </td><td>The question you should ask yourself is - how much do I want it?<br>The question <span class="textBox" style="padding:2px 40px 2px 5px;color:teal;" type="text">to ask yourself is</span> - how much do I want it?</td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>I'm not really the person who you should ask.<br>I'm not really <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,0)" style="width: 150px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>The thing we should do is talk to Mary about it.<br>The thing <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,1)" style="width: 100px;" type="text"> to talk to Mary about it.</td><td id="ex2TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>In the next race, Jenny Peters is the one we should watch.<br>In the next race, Jenny Peters <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,2)" style="width: 150px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>Look, you should do it this way.<br>Look, this is <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,3)" style="width: 150px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>You should go in September, when it's not so full of tourists.<br>The time <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap4" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,4)" style="width: 175px;" type="text">, when it's not so full of tourists.</td><td id="ex2TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>The place you should stay is the Old Mill Inn. It's absolutely wonderful.<br>The Old Mill Inn <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap5" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,5)" style="width: 150px;" type="text">. It's absolutely wonderful.</td><td id="ex2TickBox5"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(2)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(2)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(2)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea2"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3><em>can</em></h3>
<div class="m10">We can do the same with the meaning of <span class="bQ">which/who/that</span> + <span class="bQ">I/we can</span> etc. This often occurs after words like <span class="bQ">anybody, something</span> etc, </div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>I need a book to read for the journey.<br />
<span class="nml">(= <em>which/that I can read</em>)</span></li>
<li>Have you got something to listen to in the car?<br />
<span class="nml">(= <em>which/that we can listen to</em>)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>for us, him</em> etc</h4>
<div class="m10">In this sense we could often insert <span class="bQ">for</span> + pronoun before the infinitive.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>The best time (for us) to go would be September.</li>
<li>It's not such a bad thing (for her) to do.</li>
<li>A good book (for you) to read on the subject is ...</li>
<li>Come on, it's time (for us) to go.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv3">
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 3</td><td>Choose suitable words from the box to complete the sentences. <span class="noprint">Type the word into the appropriate space.</span></td></tr>
</table>
<div id="wordBox" class="wordbox" style="margin:10px 0;"><span class="optionWord">anybody</span> · <span class="optionWord">anything</span> · <span class="optionWord">anywhere</span> · <span class="optionWord">dress</span> · <span class="optionWord">job</span> · <span class="optionWord">magazine</span> · <span class="optionWord">nobody</span> · <span class="optionWord">nothing</span> · <span class="optionWord">paper</span> · <span class="optionWord">place</span> · <span class="optionWord">shoulder</span> · <span class="optionWord">somewhere</span> </div>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>Isn't there <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap0" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to look after him?</td><td>(= who can look after him) </td><td id="ex3TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>I'll need to get a new <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap1" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to wear for the party.</td><td>(= which I can wear) </td><td id="ex3TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>I'm bored, there's <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap2" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to do round here.</td><td>(= that I can do) </td><td id="ex3TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>Is there <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap3" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to eat? I'm starving.</td><td>(= which I can eat) </td><td id="ex3TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>She's gone to buy a <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap4" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to read on the train.</td><td>(= that she can read) </td><td id="ex3TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>We've found <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap5" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to stay, by the way.</td><td>(= where we can stay) </td><td id="ex3TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>Have you got any <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap6" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to wrap this up in?</td><td>(= that I can wrap this up in) </td><td id="ex3TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>Why is there never <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap7" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to sit?.</td><td>(= where we can sit) </td><td id="ex3TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>We need a <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap8" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to stay for the night.</td><td>(= where we can stay) </td><td id="ex3TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>Has she got a <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap9" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to go to when she gets there?</td><td>(= that she can go to) </td><td id="ex3TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">11. </td><td>It's not fair! I've got <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap10" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to play with.</td><td>(= who I can play with) </td><td id="ex3TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">12. </td><td>We all need a <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap11" style="width: 90px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(3,11)"> to cry on, now and then.</td><td>(= that we can cry on) </td><td id="ex3TickBox11"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(3)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(3)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(3)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea3"></span></div>
</div>
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<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3><em>need to, have to, must</em></h3>
<div class="m10">With certain quantifiers, such as <span class="bQ">a lot, several, plenty</span>, and adjectives suggesting a large extent, such as <span class="bQ">extensive, long</span>, the meaning is often more to do with necessity or obligation. This often involves a <span class="bQ">there is/are</span> construction, and words such as <span class="bQ">still</span> and <span class="bQ">before</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>There are several candidates still to interview.<br />
<span class="nml">(= <em>that we still have to interview</em>)</span></li>
<li>There are a number of problems to be dealt with.<br />
<span class="nml">(= <em>that need to be dealt with</em>)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv4">
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 4</td><td>Rewrite the sentences using a relative infinitive,as in the example. Keep active verbs active, and passive verbs passive and don't use any punctuation. </td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">Eg. </td><td>We still have a long way we need to go on this project.<br>There <span class="textBox" style="padding: 2px 40px 2px 5px;color:teal;font-weight:bold;">is still a long way to go</span> on this project.</td><td style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>We still have to do a lot before we can call it a day.<br>There <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,0)" style="width: 150px;" type="text"> before we can call it a day.</td><td id="ex4TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>We still need to discuss one or two points.<br>There <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,1)" style="width: 250px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex4TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>That will give us plenty that we must think about.<br>That <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,2)" style="width: 250px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex4TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>An extensive series of tests must be passed before we can proceed.<br>There is <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,3)" style="width: 300px;" type="text"> before we can proceed.</td><td id="ex4TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>Several questions still have to be answered.<br>There <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap4" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,4)" style="width: 300px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex4TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>They have another three matches they need to win in order to qualify.<br>They <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap5" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,5)" style="width: 250px;" type="text"> in order to qualify.</td><td id="ex4TickBox5"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(4)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(4)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(4)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea4"></span></div>
</div>
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<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3><em>will</em></h3>
<div class="m10">Sometimes the only possible interpretation seems to be <span class="bQ">'that will'</span>, (or possibly <span class="bQ">'for'</span>)</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>We have products to suit all pockets.<br />
<span class="nml">(= that will suit all pockets / for all pockets)</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><em>need / will</em></h3>
<div class="m10">When certain nouns, for example, <span class="bQ">points, issues, problems</span>, are the subject of the main clause, the meaning could either suggest necessity or simply that something will happen</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Measures to deal with the problem have been put in place.<br />
<span class="nml">(= which are needed to deal with the problem / that will deal with the problem)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv5">
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 5</td><td>Complete the sentences using a relative infinitive. </td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>They offer a range of gifts that will appeal to today's value-focused shoppers.<br>They offer a range of gifts <input class="textBox" id="ex5gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,0)" style="width: 100px;" type="text"> today's value-focused shoppers.</td><td id="ex5TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>It was certainly a day we will remember.<br>It was certainly <input class="textBox" id="ex5gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,1)" style="width: 150px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex5TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>Points which will be considered include costs and time restraints.<br>Points <input class="textBox" id="ex5gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,2)" style="width: 150px;" type="text"> include costs and time restraints.</td><td id="ex5TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>Certain steps have been taken which will solve the problem.<br>Certain steps have been taken <input class="textBox" id="ex5gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,3)" style="width: 175px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex5TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>These are the proposals that will be discussed at tomorrow's meeting.<br>These are the proposals <input class="textBox" id="ex5gap4" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,4)" style="width: 150px;" type="text"> at tomorrow's meeting.</td><td id="ex5TickBox4"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(5)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(5)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(5)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea5"></span></div>
</div>
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<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv8" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Prepositions</h3>
<div class="m10">Relative infinitive clauses are often used with prepositions and prepositional verbs.</div>
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 6</td><td>Fill each gap with a suitable preposition</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>I'd like to go to the cinema, but I've nobody to go <input class="textBox" id="ex8gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,0)" style="width: 40px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex8TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>Oh, this chocolate cake really is to die <input class="textBox" id="ex8gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,1)" style="width: 40px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex8TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>See if you can find a rug to sit <input class="textBox" id="ex8gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,2)" style="width: 40px;" type="text"> for the picnic.</td><td id="ex8TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>Have you anything to open this bottle of wine <input class="textBox" id="ex8gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,3)" style="width: 40px;" type="text">?</td><td id="ex8TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>Is there some sort of container to put these <input class="textBox" id="ex8gap4" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,4)" style="width: 40px;" type="text">?</td><td id="ex8TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>They've got a large family to provide <input class="textBox" id="ex8gap5" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,5)" style="width: 40px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex8TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>Here's something to look <input class="textBox" id="ex8gap6" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,6)" style="width: 40px;" type="text"> while you're waiting.</td><td id="ex8TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>I can't make up my mind which to go <input class="textBox" id="ex8gap7" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,7)" style="width: 40px;" type="text">, the red or the blue.</td><td id="ex8TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>She's always the first to turn <input class="textBox" id="ex8gap8" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,8)" style="width: 40px;" type="text"> at this sort of event.</td><td id="ex8TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>I'm not sure who to turn <input class="textBox" id="ex8gap9" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,9)" style="width: 40px;" type="text"> for advice.</td><td id="ex8TickBox9"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(8)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(8)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(8)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea8"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="printLogo"><span class="logo">Random Idea English</span><br /><span style="color:gray;font-size:80%;">http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com</span></div>
<div id="exDiv6" class="exDiv" id="exDiv6" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Some odds and ends</h3>
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 7</td><td>Choose suitable words from the box to complete the sentences. Some words are used more than once. <span class="noprint">Type the word into the appropriate space.</span></td></tr>
</table>
<div id="wordBox" class="wordbox" style="margin:10px 0;"><span class="optionWord">about</span> · <span class="optionWord">for</span> · <span class="optionWord">head</span> · <span class="optionWord">in</span> · <span class="optionWord">of</span> · <span class="optionWord">somebody</span> · <span class="optionWord">something</span> · <span class="optionWord">thing</span> </div>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>That should give him something to think <input class="textBox" id="ex6gap0" style="width: 90px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex6TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>It's a lot to take <input class="textBox" id="ex6gap1" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> at one sitting.</td><td id="ex6TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>The best <input class="textBox" id="ex6gap2" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to do is to wait and see.</td><td id="ex6TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>The score's still 0:0, and there's still everything to play <input class="textBox" id="ex6gap3" style="width: 90px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex6TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>Have you got <input class="textBox" id="ex6gap4" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to clean this with?</td><td id="ex6TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>Can anybody find me <input class="textBox" id="ex6gap5" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> to love? (Queen)</td><td id="ex6TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>There's a lot to be said <input class="textBox" id="ex6gap6" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> taking your time.</td><td id="ex6TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>The flat's nothing much to speak <input class="textBox" id="ex6gap7" style="width: 90px;" type="text">, perhaps, but it suits me.</td><td id="ex6TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>She just needs a place to lay her <input class="textBox" id="ex6gap8" style="width: 90px;" type="text"> for a few days.</td><td id="ex6TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>What have you got to worry <input class="textBox" id="ex6gap9" style="width: 90px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,9)">?</td><td id="ex6TickBox9"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(6)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(6)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(6)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea6"></span></div>
</div>
<div id="exDiv7" class="exDiv">
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 8</td><td>Choose suitable words from the box to complete the sentences. Some words are used more than once. <span class="noprint">Type the word into the appropriate space.</span></td></tr>
</table>
<div id="wordBox" class="wordbox" style="margin:10px 0;"><span class="optionWord">first</span> · <span class="optionWord">go</span> · <span class="optionWord">hat</span> · <span class="optionWord">home</span> · <span class="optionWord">person</span> · <span class="optionWord">place</span> · <span class="optionWord">season</span> · <span class="optionWord">time</span> · <span class="optionWord">with</span> </div>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>Have you got a key to open this <input class="textBox" id="ex7gap0" style="width: 60px;" type="text">?</td><td id="ex7TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>Now that sounds like a <input class="textBox" id="ex7gap1" style="width: 60px;" type="text"> to avoid on a dark night.</td><td id="ex7TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>'Tis the <input class="textBox" id="ex7gap2" style="width: 60px;" type="text"> to be jolly. (Dickens - A Christmas Carol)</td><td id="ex7TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>At last we have a place to call <input class="textBox" id="ex7gap3" style="width: 60px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex7TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>It's <input class="textBox" id="ex7gap4" style="width: 60px;" type="text"> to get ready for school, children.</td><td id="ex7TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>Home is more than just somewhere to hang your <input class="textBox" id="ex7gap5" style="width: 60px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex7TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>I'm the last <input class="textBox" id="ex7gap6" style="width: 60px;" type="text"> to criticise him, but really! What's he playing at?</td><td id="ex7TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>Why is she always the <input class="textBox" id="ex7gap7" style="width: 60px;" type="text"> to complain about anything, I wonder.</td><td id="ex7TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>Now is not the <input class="textBox" id="ex7gap8" o style="width: 60px;" type="text"> to cry. Now is the <input class="textBox" id="ex7gap9" style="width: 60px;" type="text"> to find out why. (Oasis)</td><td id="ex7TickBox8"></td><td id="ex7TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>So that's two lattes and a cappuccino to <input class="textBox" id="ex7gap10" style="width: 60px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(7,10)">, right?</td><td id="ex7TickBox10"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(7)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(7)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(7)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea7"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>A reminder - nouns often followed by infinitives</h3>
<div class="m10">Some nouns can be followed by infinitives acting as noun complements.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>He certainly has the ambition to succeed.</li>
<li>Her efforts to gain promotion have so far failed.</li>
<li>It's a wonderful opportunity to see the world.</li>
<li>His refusal to cooperate is disappointing.</li>
<li>I had the sudden urge to hit him.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">The infinitives here are giving essential information to 'complete' the noun, answering questions such as - <em>what ambition</em>? <em>what efforts</em>? etc, and cannot easily be made into relative clauses. They are are not, therefore, the same as infinitive relative clauses, but at times the two can look very similar:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>The proposal to build a new road will be discussed tomorrow.<br />
<span class="nml">(<em>What proposal? - the one to build a new road</em> - noun complement)</span></li>
<li>There are several proposals to be discussed<br />
<span class="nml">(<em>proposals which need to be discussed</em> - infinitival relative clause)</span></li>
<li>I was a fool to believe her.<br />
<span class="nml">(<em>Why was I a fool? - Because I believed her.</em> - noun complement)</span></li>
<li>The only fool to believe her was me<br />
<span class="nml">(<em>the only fool who believed her</em> - infinitival relative clause)</span></li>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Answers</h3>
<div class="m10">
<input class="clue" value="Ex 1" onclick="showGapBoxes(1)" type="button">
<input class="clue" value="Ex 2" onclick="showGapBoxes(2)" type="button">
<input class="clue" value="Ex 3" onclick="showGapBoxes(3)" type="button">
<input class="clue" value="Ex 4" onclick="showGapBoxes(4)" type="button">
<input class="clue" value="Ex 5" onclick="showGapBoxes(5)" type="button">
<input class="clue" value="Ex 6" onclick="showGapBoxes(8)" type="button">
<input class="clue" value="Ex 7" onclick="showGapBoxes(6)" type="button">
<input class="clue" value="Ex 8" onclick="showGapBoxes(7)" type="button">
</div>
<div class="m10">
<input class="clue" value="Show all" onclick="showAll()" type="button">
<input class="clue" value="Clear all" onclick="clearAll()" type="button">
<input class="clue" value="Print all" onclick="printAll()" type="button">
</div>
</div>
<h3>Related posts</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2012/02/reduced-relative-clauses-lesson-and.html">Reduced relative clause</a> - lesson and exercises</li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2012/09/non-defining-relative-clauses.html">Non-defining relative clauses</a>, also sentential and connective relative clauses</li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2012/03/exploring-coordinate-relative-clauses.html">Exploring coordinate relative clauses</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/10/q-when-do-we-use-that-instead-of-who-or.html">When do we use <em>that</em> instead of <em>who</em> and <em>which</em></a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2010/09/follow-up-exercise-to-those-random.html">Defining relative clauses</a> - short exercise</li>
</ul>
<h3>Links</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.grammaring.com/the-to-infinitive-in-non-finite-relative-clauses">Grammaring</a></li>
<li><a href="https://sites.google.com/site/agrammaroferrors/1-1-the-noun-phrase/1-10/1-10-3">A Grammar of Errors</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_relative_clauses#Nonfinite_relative_clauses">Wikipedia</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Forums</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/157629/how-do-i-identify-infinitive-clauses-phrases-and-subjects">Stack Exchange</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.englishforums.com/English/InfinitiveAdjectiveClause/nvzmd/post.htm">English Forums</a></li>
<li><a href="http://thegrammarexchange.infopop.cc/eve/forums/a/tpc/f/340600179/m/2591035183">The Grammar Exchange</a></li>
</ul>
<h3>Reference</h3>
<ul>
<li class="m10"><em>A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</em>, 1985<br />
Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum and others<br />
17.30-17.32 Postmodification by infinitive clauses pp.1265-1269</li>
<li class="m10"><em>The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language</em>, 2002<br />
Rodney Huddleston, Geoffrey K. Pullum and others<br />Infinitival relative clauses, pp.1067-1068</li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-35040656546837727172014-11-16T12:48:00.000+01:002014-11-17T19:30:53.011+01:00Modal past<style type="text/css">
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////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
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/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
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instantPickNDrop(x)
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/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
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showScore(exNum,ca)
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checkCompleted(x)
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document.getElementById("ex"+x+"gap"+y).style.fontWeight="bold"
document.getElementById("ex"+x+"gap"+y).style.width=len
}
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showCorrect(x,c)
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checkGapBoxes(x)
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document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"gap"+c).style.color="black"
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"gap"+c).style.fontWeight="normal"
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document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"TickBox"+c).innerHTML=""
}
}
document.getElementById("messageArea"+exNum).innerHTML=""
if(exNum==4){
clearScoredOut(4)
}
}
/////////////////////////// Pick and Drop //////////////////////////////////
/////////////////////////// Underliner /////////////////////////////////
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}
else{
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"line"+qNum+"opt"+c).style.textDecoration="none"
}
}
instantUnderliner(exNum,opt)
}
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
function instantUnderliner(exNum,opt){
var optA=["underline","line-through"]
var ca=0
var newA=ansA[exNum]
for(var c=0;c<newA.length;c++){
if(document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"line"+c+"opt"+newA[c]).style.textDecoration==optA[opt]){
ca++
}
}
//alert(ca)
if(ca==ansA[exNum].length){
checkUnderliner(exNum,opt)
}
}
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
function checkUnderliner(exNum,opt){
var optA=["underline","line-through"]
var ca=0
var newA=ansA[exNum]
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}
ca++
}
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document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"tickBox"+c).innerHTML=getInvisibleAnswersSign(2)
}
}
}
showScore(exNum,ca)
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for(var c2=0;c2<5;c2++){
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if(c2==ansA[exNum][c]){
if(opt==0){
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else if(opt==1){
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}
}
else{
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"line"+c+"opt"+c2).style.textDecoration="none"
}
}
}
}
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function clearUnderliner(exNum){
var ca=0
var newA=ansA[exNum]
for(var c=0;c<newA.length;c++){
for(var c2=0;c2<5;c2++){
if(document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"line"+c+"opt"+c2)!=null){
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"line"+c+"opt"+c2).style.textDecoration="none"
}
}
if(document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"tickBox"+c)!=null){
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"tickBox"+c).innerHTML=""
}
}
document.getElementById("messageArea"+exNum).innerHTML=""
}
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
function scoreOut(x,y){
//alert(document.getElementById("ex"+x+"wd"+y).style.textDecoration)
if(document.getElementById("ex"+x+"wd"+y).style.textDecoration==""){
document.getElementById("ex"+x+"wd"+y).style.textDecoration="line-through"
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}
else{
document.getElementById("ex"+x+"wd"+y).style.textDecoration="none"
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document.getElementById("ex"+x+"wd"+c).style.textDecoration="none"
}
}
var clickedWord=[]
var ansA=[]
ansA[1]=["could play","wouldn't help","could deal","would walk","would become","would do","would cost","couldn't get"]
ansA[2]=["4","6","1","5","2","7","8","3"]
ansA[3]=["had to","was able to","managed","were allowed"]
ansA[4]=["must have gone","could have told","would have phoned","might have missed","shouldn't have spoken","could have taken","might have had","can't have left","should have been"]
ansA[5]=["4","1","8","7","5","2","9","6","3"]
ansA[6]=[0,2,1,2,1,0,0,2,0,1]
ansA[7]=[1,1,0,0,1,0,0,0,1,1,1,0,1,1,0]
ansA[8]=["must have","couldn't have","wouldn't have","shouldn't have","might have","may not have","would have","can't have","should have","may have"]
ansA[9]=["could easily have finished","might have told","needn't have gone","must have all gone","couldn't have asked","didn't need to hurry","was able to get","would always give","may well not have heard","didn't have to pay"]
ansA[10]=["we knew we had plenty of time.","the concert started late."]
ansA[11]=["might have","should have","needn't have","would","shouldn't have","would","should have","couldn't have","can't have","had to","couldn't have","should have"]
ansA[12]=["could","should","could","can't","would","shouldn't","need","might","must","should","couldn't","should","would","might","would","could","would","needn't","should","would"]
// -->
</script>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">There are three main ways of talking about the past using modals or their equivalents:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Past modals - mainly <span class="bQ">would</span> and <span class="bQ">could</span></span></li>
<li><span class="nml">The use of other, similar verbs</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Modal perfect - <span class="bQ">must have, can't have</span> etc</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Brush up your knowledge of modal past by doing a few exercises.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<h3>Past modals</h3>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv1">
<table class="eHdr"><tbody><tr><td class="eHdr1">Intro 1</td><td>Complete each sentence with <span class="bQ">would</span> or <span class="bQ">could</span> plus a verb from the box.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div id="wordBox" class="wordbox" style="margin:10px 0;"><span class="optionWord" id="ex1wd0" onclick="scoreOut(1,0)">walk</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex1wd1" onclick="scoreOut(1,1)">cost</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex1wd2" onclick="scoreOut(1,2)">do</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex1wd3" onclick="scoreOut(1,3)">help</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex1wd4" onclick="scoreOut(1,4)">become</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex1wd5" onclick="scoreOut(1,5)">get</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex1wd6" onclick="scoreOut(1,6)">deal</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex1wd7" onclick="scoreOut(1,7)">play</span> </div>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>She <strong>can</strong> be very musical when she wants to be. In fact she <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,0)" id="ex1gap0" style="width:100px;" type="text"> the piano quite well when she was five.</td><td id="ex1TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>He <strong>won't</strong> give me a hand today, and he <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,1)" id="ex1gap1" style="width:100px;" type="text"> me yesterday, either.</td><td id="ex1TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>Susan: "I <strong>can</strong> take care of it for you" - Susan said that she <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,2)" id="ex1gap2" style="width:100px;" type="text"> with it for me.</td><td id="ex1TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>He used to live near the centre and <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,3)" id="ex1gap3" style="width:100px;" type="text"> to work every day for the exercise.</td><td id="ex1TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>Little did he know that one day he <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,4)" id="ex1gap4" style="width:120px;" type="text"> Prime Minister.</td><td id="ex1TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>"This one <strong>will</strong> be fine", she thought to herself. She thought that it <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,5)" id="ex1gap5" style="width:100px;" type="text"> nicely.</td><td id="ex1TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>"I wonder how much this one <strong>will</strong> be". She had no idea of how much it <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,6)" id="ex1gap6" style="width:100px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex1TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>I <strong>can't</strong> make this thing work, and I <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,7)" id="ex1gap7" style="width:100px;" type="text"> it to work yesterday, either.</td><td id="ex1TickBox7"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(1)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(1)" type="button"> <span id="messageArea1"></span></div>
<table class="eHdr"><tbody><tr><td class="eHdr1">Intro 2</td><td>Decide which question from Ex 1 best matches each function</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table class="matchTable"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td style="width:200px;">Past habit or routine</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex2Sel0" onchange="instantSelects(2,0)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex2TickBox0"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>Reported thought</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex2Sel1" onchange="instantSelects(2,1)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex2TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>Past general ability</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex2Sel2" onchange="instantSelects(2,2)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex2TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>Future in the past</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex2Sel3" onchange="instantSelects(2,3)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex2TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>Refusal in the past</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex2Sel4" onchange="instantSelects(2,4)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex2TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>Indirect question</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex2Sel5" onchange="instantSelects(2,5)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex2TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>Past negative ability</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex2Sel6" onchange="instantSelects(2,6)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex2TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>Reported speech</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex2Sel7" onchange="instantSelects(2,7)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex2TickBox7"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Other verb forms</h3>
<div class="m10">There are some modals which don't have past forms, for example <span class="bQ">must</span>, and we have to use past forms of other verbs instead.</div>
<div class="m10">And there are some past modals, such as <span class="bQ">could</span>, we can only use in certain contexts. To talk about ability and permission on specific occasions in the past, for example, we need to use past forms of other verbs.</div>
<table class="matchTable" id="otherVerbs" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td><span class="instr">Obligation</span><br />
Unfortunately I <strong>must</strong> get up early again today.<br />
Yesterday I <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(3,0)" style="width:100px;" type="text"> get up at 5am. (2 words) <span id="ex3TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td><span class="instr">Ability on a specific occasion</span><br />
A: We <strong>can</strong> get the tickets for the match this afternoon.<br />B: I know that last year we <strong>could</strong> usually get tickets the day of the match, but yesterday I <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(3,1)" style="width:100px;" type="text"> get some early, so we don't need to worry. (3 words) <span id="ex3TickBox1"></span><br>OR<br> I <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(3,2)" style="width:100px;" type="text"> to get some yesterday. (1 word = <span class="bQ">succeeded</span>) <span id="ex3TickBox2"></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td><span class="instr">Permission on a specific occasion</span><br />
"The children <strong>can</strong> stay up late tonight."<br>They <strong>could</strong> usually stay up till about 9pm, but that night they <input class="textBox" id="ex3gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(3,3)" style="width:100px;" type="text"> to stay up to midnight. (2 words = <span class="bQ">their parents let them</span>) <span id="ex3TickBox3"></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Notes</h3>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">The main past forms we use on their own are <span class="bQ">could</span> and <span class="bQ">would</span>, here the past forms of <span class="bQ">can</span> and <span class="bQ">will</span>. Occasionally <span class="bQ">might</span> is also used.</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">We use <span class="bQ">would</span> for:</span><ul>
<li><span class="nml">habits and routines in the past:</span><br />
He'd start every day with a cup of coffee.</li>
<li><span class="nml">annoying habits in the past (<span class="bQ">would</span> is stressed)</span><br />
He <span class="ul">would</span> keep interrupting me all the time.</li>
<li><span class="nml">refusal in the past (negative forms)</span><br />
He'd never do what he was told.</li>
<li><span class="nml">future in the past</span><br />
She would later achieve fame and fortune as a clothes designer.</li>
</ul></li>
<li><span class="nml">We use <span class="bQ">could</span> for:</span><ul>
<li><span class="nml">general ability in the past</span><br />
She could ride a bike at the age of four.</li>
<li><span class="nml">general permission in the past</span><br />
We could do pretty well what we liked.</li>
</ul></li>
<li><span class="nml">Note that we can't use <span class="bQ">could</span> to apply to ability and permission on specific occasions. Then we need to use be <span class="bQ">able to</span> or <span class="bQ">managed to</span> for ability, and <span class="bQ">be allowed to</span> for permission, or similar expressions.</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">We can use negative forms of <span class="bQ">could</span> for both general ability and permission and ability and permission on specific occasions</span><ul style="list-style:none;">
<li>I couldn't get my car to start this morning.<br />
She couldn't go out last night as her mother made her do her homework</li>
</ul></li>
<li><span class="nml">We occasionally use <span class="bQ">might</span> for the possibility of something happening in the past:</span><ul style="list-style:none;">
<li>When I lived in London my aunt might sometimes visit me unexpectedly.</li>
</ul></li>
<li><span class="nml">We can also use past modal forms in:</span><ul>
<li><span class="nml">reported speech and thoughts</span><br />
She said she could/would do it tomorrow<br />
He imagined he might be a bit late</li>
<li><span class="nml">indirect questions</span><br />
She didn't know if she'd be able to make the meeting.<br />
He wondered if she could give him some information.</li>
</ul></li>
<li><span class="nml">We can only use <span class="bQ">must</span> for obligation in its present form. For past obligation, or after a modal, we need to use <span class="bQ">have to</span>.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Modal perfect</h3>
<div class="m10">Modal perfect is mainly used for:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Speculating and making deductions</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Commenting, criticising and expressing annoyance</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Expressing unfulfilled possibility, willingness or result</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>A note on the use of contractions in the exercises</h4>
<div class="m10">Contract negatives, in both standard and perfect modals - <span class="bQ">wouldn't, wouldn't have</span>, etc - but for the sake of the exercises, don't contract <span class="bQ">have</span> in modal perfects. So, write in, for example, <span class="bQ">would have, would't have</span>, etc. There's a note about contracting modal perfects in writing after the exercises.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv4" style="page-break-before:always;">
<table class="eHdr"><tbody>
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Intro 4</td><td>Complete the sentences with verbs from the box in the perfect form of the modal verb in bold in the first part of the question.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div id="wordBox" class="wordbox" style="margin:10px 0;"><span class="optionWord" id="ex4wd0" onclick="scoreOut(4,0)">tell</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex4wd1" onclick="scoreOut(4,1)">take</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex4wd2" onclick="scoreOut(4,2)">go</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex4wd3" onclick="scoreOut(4,3)">be</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex4wd4" onclick="scoreOut(4,4)">leave</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex4wd5" onclick="scoreOut(4,5)">phone</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex4wd6" onclick="scoreOut(4,6)">miss</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex4wd7" onclick="scoreOut(4,7)">have</span> · <span class="optionWord" id="ex4wd8" onclick="scoreOut(4,8)">speak</span> </div>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>He <strong>must</strong> be out at the moment, he's not in the office.<br>He <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,0)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> to see a client.</td><td id="ex4TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>You <strong>could</strong> let me know when you're going to be late.<br>You <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,1)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> me you were going to be late.</td><td id="ex4TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>I <strong>would</strong> call him if I knew his number.<br>I <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,2)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> earlier, but my battery ran out.</td><td id="ex4TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>They <strong>might</strong> be stuck in a traffic jam somewhere.<br>Or they <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,3)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> the bus.</td><td id="ex4TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>He <strong>shouldn't</strong> be so <span class="ref" title="(disapproving) not showing much interest in somebody/something (OALD)">offhand</span> with customers.<br>And he certainly <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap4" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,4)" style="width:175px;" type="text"> to that customer like that yesterday.</td><td id="ex4TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>We <strong>could</strong> catch a bus.<br>We <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap5" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,5)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> the bus, but decided to walk instead.</td><td id="ex4TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>It's a dangerous mountain, you <strong>might</strong> fall and break something.<br>I told you not to climb that mountain! You <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap6" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,6)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> an accident!</td><td id="ex4TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>She <strong>can't</strong> be in Spain yet, surely?<br>She <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap7" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,7)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> for Spain already, surely?</td><td id="ex4TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>They <strong>should</strong> arrive soon.<br />They <input class="textBox" id="ex4gap8" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,8)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> here an hour ago. I wonder what's happened.</be></td><td id="ex4TickBox8"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv5" style="page-break-before:always;">
<table class="eHdr"><tbody><tr><td class="eHdr1">Intro 5</td><td>Decide which question from Ex 4 best matches each function</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table class="matchTable"><tbody>
<tr><td colspan="3" class="instr" style="padding:0 0 10px 0">Speculation and deduction</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td style="width:475px;">Speculating - that something was possible</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex5Sel0" onchange="instantSelects(5,0)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option><option>9</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex5TickBox0"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>Deduction - you're pretty sure about a positive past fact</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex5Sel1" onchange="instantSelects(5,1)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option><option>9</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex5TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>Deduction - you're pretty sure about a negative past fact</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex5Sel2" onchange="instantSelects(5,2)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option><option>9</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex5TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="3" class="instr" style="padding:10px 0 10px 0">Comment, criticism and annoyance</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>Commenting on the possiblity of something bad happening in the past</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex5Sel3" onchange="instantSelects(5,3)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option><option>9</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex5TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>Criticising somebody's past behaviour</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex5Sel4" onchange="instantSelects(5,4)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option><option>9</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex5TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>Expressing annoyance at somebody's past behaviour</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex5Sel5" onchange="instantSelects(5,5)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option><option>9</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex5TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="3" class="instr" style="padding:10px 0 10px 0">Describing hypothetical events</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>Describes something that was expected to happen, but hasn't happened yet</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex5Sel6" onchange="instantSelects(5,6)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option><option>9</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex5TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>Describes past possibility of doing something, but which wasn't done</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex5Sel7" onchange="instantSelects(5,7)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option><option>9</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex5TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>Describes past willingness to do something which wasn't done</td><td><select class="selBox" id="ex5Sel8" onchange="instantSelects(5,8)"><option></option><option>1</option><option>2</option><option>3</option><option>4</option><option>5</option><option>6</option><option>7</option><option>8</option><option>9</option></select> </td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex5TickBox8"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Modal perfect - speculation and deduction</h3>
<div class="m10">We can use modal perfect to:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">to speculate about a possibility in the past:</span><br />
<strong>could have, might have, may have</strong>
<p>He could have simply forgotten.</p>
</li>
<li><span class="nml">to express uncertainty about the past:</span><br />
<strong>might not have, may not have</strong>
<p>They might/may not have realised that I meant today.</p>
</li>
<li><span class="nml">to express certainty that something happened:</span><br />
<strong>must have</strong>
<p>She must have done forgotten to call back.</p></li>
<li><span class="nml">to express certainty that something didn't happen:</span><br />
<strong>can't have, couldn't have</strong>
<p>It can't have been Derek, he's in France.<br />
She couldn't have got our letter.</p></li>
<li><span class="nml">with <span class="bQ">surely</span> to express disbelief:</span><br />
<strong>must have, can't have, couldn't have</strong>
<p>He must have known it was a stupid thing to do, surely!<br />
Surely she couldn't have done that all by herself!</p></li>
<li><span class="nml">to make assumptions about the past</span><br />
<strong>would have</strong>
<p> - Someone called when you were out<br />
- Oh that would probably have been Maisy, our next-door neighbour.</p></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Modal perfect - describing hypothetical events</h3>
<div class="m10">We can use modal perfect for hypothetical siuations, for example in past hypothetical conditionals (3rd and mixed). We can use it to:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">to describe a past possibility or ability which wasn't fulfilled, often with <span class="bQ">but</span> or <span class="bQ">if</span>:</span><br />
<strong>could have</strong>
<p>They could have bought a more expensive car (<strong>but</strong> decided on this one).<br />
We could have gone to see them <strong>if</strong> they hadn't been in Spain.</p></li>
<li><span class="nml">to describe past events that didn't happen, often with <span class="bQ">but</span> and <span class="bQ">if</span>. This often involves willingness:</span><br />
<strong>would have</strong>
<p>We would have gone to see them <strong>but</strong> it turned out they were in Spain.<br />
The building would have collapsed <strong>if</strong> it hadn't been so well designed.</p></li>
<li><span class="nml">to describe past events that took place only because something else happened<br />
negative forms of </span><strong>could have, would have</strong>
<p>I wouldn't have done it <strong>if</strong> you hadn't told me to.<br />
We could never have finished it without your help.
</p></li>
<li><span class="nml">to express past unwillingness to do something<br />
negative forms of </span><strong>could have, would have</strong>
<p>We couldn't have left without saying goodbye. <span class="nml">(= we weren't willing to)</span><br />
She wouldn't have let me down.</p></li>
<li><span class="nml"> to describe something that was expected to happen but hasn't yet:</span><br />
<strong>should have</strong>
<p>They should have been here by now</p></li>
<li><span class="nml">with comparatives:<br />
negative forms of </span><strong>could have</strong><br />
<p>He couldn't have been more helpful. <span class="nml">(= he was extremely helpful)</span><br />
We couldn't have run any faster if we'd tried. <span class="nml">(= we ran as fast as we could)</span> </p></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Modal perfect - commenting, criticising and expressing annoyance</h3>
<div class="m10">We can use modal perfect</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">to comment on a possible negative result (that didn't actually happen):</span><br />
<strong>could have, might have</strong> <span class="nml">(but NOT</span> <span class="strike">may have</span><span class="nml">)</span><br />
<p>You could/might have had an accident</p></li>
<li><span class="nml">to comment on or criticise someone's actions:</span><br />
<strong>should have, shouldn't have</strong><br />
You should have phoned me </li>
<li><span class="nml">to express annoyance at someone else's behaviour:</span><br />
<strong>could have, might have</strong><br />
He could/might have told us he'd already bought the tickets</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Modal perfect in special expressions, idioms etc</h3>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">to thank someone:</span><br />
<strong>shouldn't have</strong><br />
- We've got you this little present.<br />
- Oh, thank you so much, but you really shouldn't have.</li>
<li><span class="nml">to say that something wouldn't have been desirable</span><br />
<strong>It would have been</strong> <span class="nml">+ adj + infininitive</span>
<p>It would have been unkind not to have helped her<br />
It wouldn't have been very polite to have left too early.</p></li>
<li><span class="nml">to say that something is typical of someone</span><br />
<strong>might have known</strong>
<p>I might have known he'd do something like that.<br />
<span class="nml">A.</span> She's late again. <span class="nml">B.</span> I might have known!</p></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>Need</em> and <span class="bQ">dare</span> in the past</h3>
<div class="m10">The <span class="bQ">verb</span> need is a semi-modal. It is usually used like a normal verb, but a model form is sometimes used in questions and negatives:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>I need to go to the shops. <span class="nml">(normal verb form)</span></li>
<li>We don't need to get any oranges. <span class="nml">(normal verb form)</span><br />
We needn't get any apples. <span class="nml">(modal form)</span></li>
<li>Do we need to be home early? <span class="nml">(normal verb form)</span><br />
Need we go to bed already? <span class="nml">(modal form)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In the present negative there is no difference in meaning, and in present questions there is little difference, although the modal form is used especially when we don't really want to do something. </div>
<div class="m10">In past negative, however, there is a difference in meaning. Complete the sentences: </div>
<div id="exDiv10"><table><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>We didn't need to hurry, because </td><td><span id="tdRightEx10Sel0"><select class="selBox" id="ex10Sel0" onchange="instantTotalSelects(10,0)"><option></option><option>we knew we had plenty of time.</option><option>the concert started late.</option></select></span></td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex10TickBox0"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>We needn't have hurried, because </td><td><span id="tdRightEx10Sel1" onchange="instantTotalSelects(10,1)"><select class="selBox" id="ex10Sel1"><option></option><option>we knew we had plenty of time.</option><option>the concert started late.</option></select></span></td><td style="width:10px;" id="ex10TickBox1"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkSelAnswers(10)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Show" onclick="showSelAnswers(10)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearSelAnswers(10)" type="button"> <span id="messageArea10"></span></div></div>
<div class="m10">The verb <span class="bQ">dare</span> has two meanings - to have the courage or cheek to do something, and to challenge somebody to do something. In the first meaning it is also a semi-modal. In the past it is usually used in the negative. Most commonly a normal verb form with <span class="bQ">didn't</span> is used, but in a literary style a modal form is also sometimes used:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>He didn't dare tell her he had forgotten already. <span class="nml">(normal verb form)</span></li>
<li>He dared not tell her he had forgotten already. <span class="nml">(modal form)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Special uses of <em>should</em> and <em>should have</em></h3>
<div class="m10">Usually <span class="bQ">should</span> is similar in meaning to <span class="bQ">ought to</span>. But sometimes, especially in British English, <span class="bQ">should</span> is used in different ways:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">in <span class="bQ">that</span>-clauses</span><ul>
<li><span class="nml">after verbs connected with suggestions, recommendations, orders and requests</span><br />
He recommended (that) I should take a rest.</li>
<li><span class="nml">after adjectives connected with importance, surprise, interest etc</span><br />
It's interesting (that) he should say that.</li>
</ul></li>
<li><span class="nml">Instead of <span class="bQ">would</span></span><ul>
<li><span class="nml">in purpose clauses</span><br />
We hurried so that we should not be late.</li>
<li><span class="nml">before certain verbs, such as <span class="bQ">think, imagine, hope, say</span> when we are not certain about something</span><br />
I should imagine he'd have arrived back home by now.</li>
</ul></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Occasionally we can use <span class="bQ">should have</span> in the same way:</div>
<ul class="bQ10" style="list-style:none;">
<li>It's encouraging that she should have chosen mathematics as a career.</li>
<li></li>
<li>Why are you all dressed up? I should have thought it was obvious.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div id="exDiv7" class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<table class="eHdr"><tbody>
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Practice 1</td><td>Underline the best option <span class="noprint">by clicking on it (click again to 'undo')</span>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>You <span id="ex7line0opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,0,0,2,0)">must have warned</span> / <span id="ex7line0opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,0,1,2,0)">might have warned</span> me that the plate was hot!</td><td id="ex7tickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>She left early as she <span id="ex7line1opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,1,0,2,0)">must have met</span> / <span id="ex7line1opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,1,1,2,0)">had to meet</span> someone off the train.</td><td id="ex7tickBox1" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>When she was young she just <span id="ex7line2opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,2,0,2,0)">wouldn't do</span> / <span id="ex7line2opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,2,1,2,0)">shouldn't do</span> as she was told.</td><td id="ex7tickBox2" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>It's possible he <span id="ex7line3opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,3,0,2,0)">might have forgotten</span> / <span id="ex7line3opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,3,1,2,0)">should have forgotten</span> about the meeting.</td><td id="ex7tickBox3" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>I'm not sure who told me, but it <span id="ex7line4opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,4,0,2,0)">must have been</span> / <span id="ex7line4opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,4,1,2,0)">could have been</span> Tracy.</td><td id="ex7tickBox4" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>You've just discovered what he's like! I <span id="ex7line5opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,5,0,2,0)">could have told</span> / <span id="ex7line5opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,5,1,2,0)">may have told</span> you that myself.</td><td id="ex7tickBox5" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>It <span id="ex7line6opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,6,0,2,0)">can't have been</span> / <span id="ex7line6opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,6,1,2,0)">shouldn't have been</span> Judy; she's away on holiday.</td><td id="ex7tickBox6" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>It's strange that he <span id="ex7line7opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,7,0,2,0)">should have thought</span> / <span id="ex7line7opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,7,1,2,0)">must have thought</span> that it was me.</td><td id="ex7tickBox7" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>You <span id="ex7line8opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,8,0,2,0)">may have asked</span> / <span id="ex7line8opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,8,1,2,0)">should have asked</span> me how to get there. I know the way.</td><td id="ex7tickBox8" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>It <span id="ex7line9opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,9,0,2,0)">shouldn't have been</span> / <span id="ex7line9opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,9,1,2,0)">wouldn't have been</span> polite not to accept their invitation.</td><td id="ex7tickBox9" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">11. </td><td>She didn't know it at the time, but one day she <span id="ex7line10opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,10,0,2,0)">could be</span> / <span id="ex7line10opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,10,1,2,0)">would be</span> world champion.</td><td id="ex7tickBox10" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">12. </td><td>We <span id="ex7line11opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,11,0,2,0)">didn't need to buy</span> / <span id="ex7line11opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,11,1,2,0)">needn't have bought</span> as I knew we already had plenty.</td><td id="ex7tickBox11" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">13. </td><td>It was't at all how I imagined it <span id="ex7line12opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,12,0,2,0)">must be</span> / <span id="ex7line12opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,12,1,2,0)">would be</span> like.</td><td id="ex7tickBox12" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">14. </td><td>Luckily, we <span id="ex7line13opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,13,0,2,0)">could get</span> / <span id="ex7line13opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,13,1,2,0)">were able to get</span> a last minute flight, so we're off tomorrow.</td><td id="ex7tickBox13" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">15. </td><td><span id="ex7line14opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,14,0,2,0)">Shouldn't it</span> / <span id="ex7line14opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,14,1,2,0)">can't it</span> have arrived by now? We ordered it ages ago.</td><td id="ex7tickBox14" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkUnderliner(7,0)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearUnderliner(7)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(7)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea7"></span></div>
</div>
<div id="exDiv8" class="exDiv">
<table class="eHdr"><tbody>
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Practice 2</td><td>Complete each sentence with a phrase from the box.<br />
<span class="noprint"><span class="red">Click'n'drop</span> - Click on a phrase in the box then on the gap where you want it to go. Text entry is not possible.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div id="wordBox" class="wordbox" style="margin:10px 0;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("8",0)"><span id="ex8Word0">may not have</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("8",1)"><span id="ex8Word1">can't have</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("8",2)"><span id="ex8Word2">may have</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("8",3)"><span id="ex8Word3">shouldn't have</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("8",4)"><span id="ex8Word4">would have</span></a></span><br />
<span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("8",5)"><span id="ex8Word5">should have</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("8",6)"><span id="ex8Word6">must have</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("8",7)"><span id="ex8Word7">wouldn't have</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("8",8)"><span id="ex8Word8">might have</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:makeClickedWord("8",9)"><span id="ex8Word9">couldn't have</span></a></span> </div><table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>She <span class="dropGap" style="width:150px;" id="ex8gap0" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(8,0)"> </span> realised what she was doing was wrong, surely.</td><td id="ex8TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>They <span class="dropGap" style="width:150px;" id="ex8gap1" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(8,1)"> </span> given us a warmer welcome. It was wonderful.</td><td id="ex8TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>He <span class="dropGap" style="width:150px;" id="ex8gap2" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(8,2)"> </span> said that unless he'd had a very good reason.</td><td id="ex8TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>He really <span class="dropGap" style="width:150px;" id="ex8gap3" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(8,3)"> </span> spoken to her like that. It was very rude.</td><td id="ex8TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>You <span class="dropGap" style="width:150px;" id="ex8gap4" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(8,4)"> </span> phoned to say you would be late.</td><td id="ex8TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>It's possible he <span class="dropGap" style="width:150px;" id="ex8gap5" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(8,5)"> </span> got the message.</td><td id="ex8TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>We <span class="dropGap" style="width:150px;" id="ex8gap6" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(8,6)"> </span> got here earlier but the traffic was awful.</td><td id="ex8TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>He <span class="dropGap" style="width:150px;" id="ex8gap7" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(8,7)"> </span> left work already, surely. It's only 3 o'clock.</td><td id="ex8TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>You <span class="dropGap" style="width:150px;" id="ex8gap8" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(8,8)"> </span> seen her face when she heard the news. It was priceless.</td><td id="ex8TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>I can't be certain, but I <span class="dropGap" style="width:150px;" id="ex8gap9" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(8,9)"> </span> left a window open.</td><td id="ex8TickBox9"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkPickNDrop(8)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearPickNDrop(8)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(8)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea8"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv9" style="page-break-before:always;">
<table class="eHdr"><tbody>
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Practice 3</td><td>Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first, using the word given. Use between three and five words and don't change the word given.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>It would easily have been possible for her to finish it on her own.<br><b>easily</b><br>She <input class="textBox" id="ex9gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,0)" style="width:200px;" type="text"> it on her own.</td><td id="ex9TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>I'm annoyed you didn't tell me earlier.<br><b>might</b><br>You <input class="textBox" id="ex9gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,1)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> me earlier.</td><td id="ex9TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>It wasn't necessary for them to go to all that bother.<br><b>needn't</b><br>They <input class="textBox" id="ex9gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,2)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> to all that bother.</td><td id="ex9TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>It looks as though they have all gone out.<br><b>have</b><br>They <input class="textBox" id="ex9gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,3)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> out.</td><td id="ex9TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>It wouldn't have been fair to ask you to work late again.<br '=""><b>couldn't</b><br>I <input class="textBox" id="ex9gap4" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,4)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> you to work late again.</td><td id="ex9TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>It wasn't necessary to hurry, so we had another coffee.<br><b>need</b><br>We <input class="textBox" id="ex9gap5" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,5)" style="width:150px;" type="text">, so we had another coffee.</td><td id="ex9TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>I locked myself out but managed to get in through a window.<br><b>was</b><br>I locked myself out but I <input class="textBox" id="ex9gap6" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,6)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> in through a window.</td><td id="ex9TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>It was her custom to always give us presents when we visited her. <br><b>would</b><br>She <input class="textBox" id="ex9gap7" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,7)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> us presents when we visited her.</td><td id="ex9TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>It's possible that he hasn't heard the news yet.<br><b>may well</b><br>He <input class="textBox" id="ex9gap8" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,8)" style="width:175px;" type="text"> our message.</td><td id="ex9TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>They didn't make us pay any extra.<br><b>pay</b><br>We <input class="textBox" id="ex9gap9" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,9)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> any extra.</td><td id="ex9TickBox9"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(9)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(9)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(9)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea9"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv11">
<table class="eHdr"><tbody>
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Practice 4</td><td>Replace the modal verb in each sentence with a more appropriate one. In some cases there may be more than one possible answer. Use contractions for negatives, but not for <span class="bQ">'have'</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">EG. </td><td>You would have seen his reaction when he was told the news.</td><td><span class="textBox" style="padding:2px 80px 2px 5px;" type="text">should have</span></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>She just may have passed the exam if she had put in a bit more effort.</td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex11gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(11,0)" style="width:150px;" type="text"></td><td id="ex11TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>You must have told me you didn't like horror movies. We could have gone to see something else.</td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex11gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(11,1)" style="width:150px;" type="text"></td><td id="ex11TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>We shouldn't have made all that food, seeing hardly anyone ate anything.</td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex11gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(11,2)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> </td><td id="ex11TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>When he was preparing for the marathon, he could start every day with a thirty-minute run.</td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex11gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(11,3)" style="width:150px;" type="text"></td><td id="ex11TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>You mustn't have made such a fuss when they couldn't give you a window seat.</td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex11gap4" onkeyup="instantCheck(11,4)" style="width:150px;" type="text"></td><td id="ex11TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>When she was a child she should never do what she was told.</td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex11gap5" onkeyup="instantCheck(11,5)" style="width:150px;" type="text"></td><td id="ex11TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>It's strange that he can have acted that way.</td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex11gap6" onkeyup="instantCheck(11,6)" style="width:150px;" type="text"></td><td id="ex11TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>I'm so grateful, I really can't have done it without your help.</td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex11gap7" onkeyup="instantCheck(11,7)" style="width:150px;" type="text"></td><td id="ex11TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>She mustn't have told you the news yet! We're getting married!</td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex11gap8" onkeyup="instantCheck(11,8)" style="width:150px;" type="text"></td><td id="ex11TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>She must go to London yesterday.</td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex11gap9" onkeyup="instantCheck(11,9)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> </td><td id="ex11TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">11. </td><td>They wouldn't have been a nicer couple.</td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex11gap10" onkeyup="instantCheck(11,10)" style="width:150px;" type="text"></td><td id="ex11TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">12. </td><td>You would have finished that essay by now. It's due first thing tomorrow!</td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex11gap11" onkeyup="instantCheck(11,11)" style="width:150px;" type="text"></td><td id="ex11TickBox11"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv12">
<table class="eHdr"><tbody>
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Practice 5</td><td>Complete each sentence using one word in each gap. Contractions (<em>mustn't</em>) count as one word. Sometimes there may be more than one possible answer.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>They <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,0)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have afforded a holiday abroad, but preferred to spend it in Scotland.</td><td id="ex12TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>You <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,1)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have seen her expression when I told her where she could stick her job!</td><td id="ex12TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>He was a bit of a child prodigy. He <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,2)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> already do quadratic equations when he was six.</td><td id="ex12TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>Mr Jones is away on a business trip, so it <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,3)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have been him you talked to. Perhaps it was Mr Brown.</td><td id="ex12TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>He'd had enough of working hard for no reward. From then on he <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap4" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,4)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> take life a bit easier.</td><td id="ex12TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>That was a lovely dinner, but you really <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap5" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,5)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have gone to so much trouble just for us.</td><td id="ex12TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>He didn't <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap6" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,6)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> to apply for a visa, as they had just relaxed the rules.</td><td id="ex12TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>Don't you dare do that again! You <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap7" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,7)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have got us all thrown out of the hotel!</td><td id="ex12TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>Look, the lights are all on. Someone <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap8" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,8)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have forgotten to turn them off.</td><td id="ex12TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>Silly girl! You <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap9" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,9)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have asked Peter to help you instead of doing it all on your own.</td><td id="ex12TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">11. </td><td>Don't mention it. I <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap10" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,10)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have let you move house all by yourself.</td><td id="ex12TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">12. </td><td>Where has that daughter of ours got to? She <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap11" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,11)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have been here an hour ago.</td><td id="ex12TickBox11"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">13. </td><td>At least she was willing to help, unlike someone I could mention, who <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap12" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,12)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> never lift a finger.</td><td id="ex12TickBox12"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">14. </td><td>It's not like him to be late. He <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap13" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,13)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have been held up somewhere, perhaps.</td><td id="ex12TickBox13"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">15. </td><td>He had no idea if it <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap14" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,14)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> work or not, but it was worth a try.</td><td id="ex12TickBox14"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">16. </td><td>You <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap15" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,15)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> at least have admitted that I'd been right all along.</td><td id="ex12TickBox15"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">17. </td><td>I <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap16" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,16)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have phoned earlier, only I was stuck in a meeting where using a mobile was out of the question.</td><td id="ex12TickBox16"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">18. </td><td>We <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap17" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,17)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have booked after all. Look, there are plenty of free tables.</td><td id="ex12TickBox17"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">19. </td><td>It's a all bit of a mystery. We <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap18" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,18)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have heard from him by now, but not a peep.</td><td id="ex12TickBox18"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">20. </td><td>You <input class="textBox" id="ex12gap19" onkeyup="instantCheck(12,19)" style="width:70px;" type="text"> have thought he would at least have sent an email or something.</td><td id="ex12TickBox19"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Adverbs with modal expressions</h3>
<div class="m10">We often use adverbs to emphasise modal expressions:</div>
<table class="eHdr"><tbody>
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Practice 6</td><td>Underline the best option <span class="noprint">by clicking on it (click again to 'undo')</span>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>I might <span id="ex6line0opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,0,0,3,0)">just</span> / <span id="ex6line0opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,0,1,3,0)">badly</span> / <span id="ex6line0opt2" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,0,2,3,0)">only</span> have taken him up on his offer.</td><td id="ex6tickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>They could <span id="ex6line1opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,1,0,3,0)">probably</span> / <span id="ex6line1opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,1,1,3,0)">fortunately</span> / <span id="ex6line1opt2" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,1,2,3,0)">easily</span> have had an accident.</td><td id="ex6tickBox1" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>She might <span id="ex6line2opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,2,0,3,0)">strongly</span> / <span id="ex6line2opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,2,1,3,0)">well</span> / <span id="ex6line2opt2" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,2,2,3,0)">badly</span> have forgotten.</td><td id="ex6tickBox2" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>They must <span id="ex6line3opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,3,0,3,0)">currently</span> / <span id="ex6line3opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,3,1,3,0)">luckily</span> / <span id="ex6line3opt2" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,3,2,3,0)">obviously</span> have got the wrong person.</td><td id="ex6tickBox3" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>We couldn't <span id="ex6line4opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,4,0,3,0)">well</span> / <span id="ex6line4opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,4,1,3,0)">really</span> / <span id="ex6line4opt2" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,4,2,3,0)">rarely</span> have done it without you.</td><td id="ex6tickBox4" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>They <span id="ex6line5opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,5,0,3,0)">simply</span> / <span id="ex6line5opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,5,1,3,0)">actually</span> / <span id="ex6line5opt2" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,5,2,3,0)">easily</span> couldn't believe their eyes.</td><td id="ex6tickBox5" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>She could <span id="ex6line6opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,6,0,3,0)">easily</span> / <span id="ex6line6opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,6,1,3,0)">probably</span> / <span id="ex6line6opt2" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,6,2,3,0)">needlessly</span> have done it without anyone noticing.</td><td id="ex6tickBox6" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>She might <span id="ex6line7opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,7,0,3,0)">definitely</span> / <span id="ex6line7opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,7,1,3,0)">certainly</span> / <span id="ex6line7opt2" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,7,2,3,0)">possibly</span> have left the keys with her neighbour.</td><td id="ex6tickBox7" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td><span id="ex6line8opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,8,0,3,0)">Surely</span> / <span id="ex6line8opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,8,1,3,0)">Certainly</span> / <span id="ex6line8opt2" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,8,2,3,0)">Probably</span> you can't haven't forgotten his name already!</td><td id="ex6tickBox8" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>You <span id="ex6line9opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,9,0,3,0)">well</span> / <span id="ex6line9opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,9,1,3,0)">really</span> / <span id="ex6line9opt2" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,9,2,3,0)">easily</span> shouldn't have gone to all that trouble.</td><td id="ex6tickBox9" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
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</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>A note on <em>mustn't have</em></h3>
<div class="m10">You might occasionally come across <span class="bQ">mustn't have</span> instead of <span class="bQ">can't have</span> for negative deduction, although most EFL books suggest that this is wrong. Here's an example from Google Books:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>"You obviously didn't kill yourself and, since you stayed married, it mustn't have been too bad." <span class="nml">The Change, Arthur James, 2006</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In <em>Practical English Usage</em>, Michael Swan writes that we 'generally use <span class="bQ">cannot/can't</span> to say something is certainly not the case. However, <span class="bQ">must not/mustn't</span> is occasionally used in this sense, especially in American English', and he gives the example:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>I haven't heard Molly moving about. She mustn't be awake yet. Her alarm mustn't have gone off.<br />
<span class="nml">(OR</span> ... She can't be awake yet. Her alarm can't have gone off.<span class="nml">)</span>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">This use is controversial, and not everbody seems to accept it as standard. So although everyone will understand you if you use <span class="bQ">mustn't have</span>, you're probably best sticking with <span class="bQ">can't have</span>. And I've seen at least two exercises in EFL books lately where <span class="bQ">mustn't have</span> instead of <span class="bQ">can't have</span> is treated as a mistake.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>A note on <em>must've, could've</em> and <em>must of, could of</em> etc</h3>
<div class="m10">When speaking, we usually contract <span class="bQ">'must have, couldn't have'</span> etc to <span class="bQ">'must've, couldn't've</span> etc:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>You must've have been out when I called.</li>
<li>He couldn't've heard what I said.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Contractions in written English</h4>
<div class="m10">But modal perfect contractions, such as <span class="bQ">must've, could've, would've</span>, although perfectly correct, seem to be used rather less in writing than contractions like <span class="bQ">aren't, haven't</span> etc. Some commentators recommend avoiding them because of possible spelling problems (see below). And in negatives it's not considered standard to contract <span class="bQ">'have'</span>, only <span class="bQ">'not'</span> - <span class="bQ">'He can't have done'</span>, NOT <span class="strike"><span class="bQ">'He can't've done'</span></span> (although that's how it sounds).</div>
<h4>Spelling problems</h4>
<div class="m10">Some native speakers have trouble spelling <span class="bQ">'must have'</span>,<span class="bQ"> 'could have'</span>, etc, although I don't think this is a problem for foreign learners.</div>
<div class="m10">This is because unstressed <span class="bQ">'have'</span> in <span class="bQ">'You must've done!'</span> for instance, sounds exactly the same as unstressed <span class="bQ">'of'</span>, in for example, <span class="bQ">'a cup of tea'</span> - <span style="color:gray;"><strong>/əv/</strong></span> - the vowel in both having the schwa sound. And some native speakers, perhaps not knowing too much about the grammar behind it, or having forgotten it, write <span class="bQ">'must of'</span> etc, instead of <span class="bQ">'must have'</span>, as that's what they hear.</div>
<div class="m10">There's even a song, "<em>Must Of Got Lost</em>" (1974), by American rock Band, the J. Geils Band. If you see examples of this, don't worry, it's not a new form you didn't know about: it's a mistake. And a mistake that is taken by some people to be a sign of bad education, although it's quite understandable why people do it. So, you have been warned!</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Answers</h3>
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<h3>Related posts</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2014/04/modal-verbs-overview.html">Modal verbs - an overview</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2012/12/used-to-will-and-would.html"><span class="bQ">Used to, will</span> and <span class="bQ">would</span></a> - explanations and exercises</li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/02/modals-plus-talking-about-ability-can.html">Modals for ability</a> - explanations and exercises</li>
</ul>
<h3>Links</h3>
<h4><em>Mustn't have</em></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=dUTdk93cq9UC&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=%22mustn%27t+have+been%22&source=bl&ots=IxsL3_GMBk&sig=OSe9CAl2MXjs9ruEMB_b-bLiP4Q&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wYNLVPXUMsfjavjngPgN&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22mustn%27t%20have%20been%22&f=false">Mighty Fine Words and Smashing Expressions</a>, by Orin Hargreaves, at Google Books</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>Must of</em>, etc</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/couldof.html">Common Errors</a> - excellent usage site at Washington State University</li>
<li><a href="http://stancarey.wordpress.com/2012/10/23/would-of-could-of-might-of-must-of/">Sentence First</a> - Stan Carey's linguistics blog</li>
</ul>Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-12227356880386215532014-11-11T15:32:00.000+01:002014-11-15T14:51:52.386+01:00Verb patterns - quick quizzes<style type="text/css">
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'.dropGap{display:inline-block;border-bottom:teal dotted 1px;margin:0;color:teal;}',
'.optWord{font-style:italic;color:gray;}',
'.eHdr{font-weight:bold;margin:20px 0;}',
'.eHdr td{vertical-align:top;}',
'.eHdr1{color:#3399bb;width:100px;}',
'.optionPart{text-decoration:none;}',
'.optionPart a{text-decoration:none;color:black;}',
'.optionPart a:hover{color:red;}',
'.optionPart a:active{color:blue;}',
'.hl{color:#cc00ff;}',
'.lw{color:red;}',
'.ft{color:blue;}',
'.entryTable{border-collapse:collapse;margin:0 auto 20px auto;}',
'#entryTable0 td{width:200px;}',
'#entryTable1 td{width:250px;}',
'#entryTable2 td{width:100px;}',
'#entryTable4 td{width:150px;}',
'#entryTable5 td{width:150px;}',
'#entryTable6 td{width:200px;}',
'.entryTr td{height:150px;border:solid gray 1px;padding:0 5px;vertical-align:top;cursor:pointer;}',
'.headerTr td{background:#0099cc;color:white;text-align:center;}',
'.pageBreak{page-break-before:always;border-bottom:dotted silver 5px;}',
'.logo{color:#3399bb;font-family:georgia;font-weight:bold;}',
'.printLogo{text-align:center;margin:10px 0;}',
'.noprint,.clue{display:none;}',
'.printBlock{display:block;}',
' --></style>')
ttxt=ttxtA.join("\n")
var ttxt=ttxt+"</head><body>"+mtxt+"</div></body></html>"
myWindow=window.open()
myWindow.document.write(ttxt)
myWindow.document.close()
}
/////////////////////////// PickNDrop Checking etc //////////////////////////////
function checkGapBoxes(exNum){
var ca=0
for(var c=0;c<ansA[exNum].length;c++){
var gapTxt=document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"gap"+c).value
if(gapTxt==ansA[exNum][c]){
if(document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"TickBox"+c)!=null){
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"TickBox"+c).innerHTML="<span style='color:green;font-weight:bold;'>Y</span>"
}
else{
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"gap"+c).style.color="green"
}
ca++
}
else{
if(document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"TickBox"+c)!=null){
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"TickBox"+c).innerHTML="<span style='color:red;font-weight:bold;'>X</span>"
}
else{
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"gap"+c).style.color="red"
}
}
}
showScore(exNum,ca)
}
function showGapBoxes(exNum){
for(var c=0;c<ansA[exNum].length;c++){
var gapTxt=document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"gap"+c).value
if(gapTxt==ansA[exNum][c]){
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"gap"+c).style.color="green"
}
else{
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"gap"+c).style.color="red"
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"gap"+c).value=ansA[exNum][c]
}
}
}
function clearGapBoxes(exNum){
for(var c=0;c<ansA[exNum].length;c++){
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"gap"+c).value=""
if(document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"TickBox"+c)!=null){
document.getElementById("ex"+exNum+"TickBox"+c).innerHTML=""
}
}
document.getElementById("messageArea"+exNum).innerHTML=""
}
function instantCheck(x,y){
document.getElementById("ex"+x+"gap"+y).style.color="black"
document.getElementById("ex"+x+"gap"+y).style.fontWeight="normal"
if(document.getElementById("ex"+x+"gap"+y).value.indexOf(ansA[x][y])!=-1){
document.getElementById("ex"+x+"gap"+y).value=ansA[x][y]
showCorrect(x,y)
checkCompleted(x)
}
checkCompleted(x)
}
function checkCompleted(x,y){
var ct=0
for(var c=0;c<ansA[x].length;c++){
if(y==2){
if(document.getElementById("ex"+x+"gap"+c).innerHTML==ansA[x][c]){
showCorrect(x,c)
ct++
}
}
else{
if(document.getElementById("ex"+x+"gap"+c).value==ansA[x][c]){
showCorrect(x,c)
ct++
}
}
}
if(ct==ansA[x].length){
checkGapBoxes(x)
}
}
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
var listA=[]
var firstsA=[]
var mlistA=[]
var nListA=[]
var dListA=[
"regret\\1",
"stop\\1",
"try\\1",
"begin\\0",
"continue\\0",
"start\\0",
"remember\\1",
"like\\0",
"love\\0",
"prefer\\0",
"forget\\1",
"hate\\0",
"intend\\0",
"mean\\1",
"cease\\0",
"can't bear\\0",
"dread\\0",
"propose\\0",
"endure\\0",
"go on\\1"]
// top 300
nListA[0]=[
"aim\\0",
"arrange\\0",
"choose\\0",
"decide\\0",
"intend\\0",
"plan\\0",
"prepare\\0",
"demand\\0",
"expect\\0",
"hope\\0",
"want\\0",
"would like\\0",
"mind (object to)\\1",
"can’t stand\\1",
"admit\\1",
"consider\\1",
"describe\\1",
"deny\\1",
"discuss\\1",
"imagine\\1",
"fancy\\1"]
nListA[1]=[
"offer\\0",
"promise\\0",
"refuse\\0",
"afford\\0",
"agree\\0",
"appear\\0",
"allow (passive)\\0",
"apply\\0",
"ask\\0",
"claim\\0",
"fail\\0",
"wish\\0",
"can't help\\1",
"keep on (= continue)\\1",
"enjoy\\1",
"mind\\1",
"anticipate\\1",
"avoid\\1",
"be worth\\1",
"encourage\\1",
"recommend\\1",
"give up (stop)\\1"]
nListA[2]=[
"get (manage)\\0",
"happen\\0",
"help\\0",
"learn\\0",
"know\\0",
"manage\\0",
"need\\0",
"seem\\0",
"tend\\0",
"train\\0",
"wait\\0",
"attempt\\0",
"pay\\0",
"can't face\\1",
"involve\\1",
"keep\\1",
"miss\\1",
"mention\\1",
"suggest\\1",
"finish\\1",
"feel like\\1",
"keep (continue)\\1",
"put off\\1"]
// the rest
var rListA=[]
nListA[3]=[
"care (like)\\0",
"threaten\\0",
"neglect\\0",
"dare\\0",
"seek\\0",
"deserve\\0",
"guarantee\\0",
"turn out\\0",
"swear\\0",
"pretend\\0",
"chance\\0",
"hurry\\0",
"appreciate\\1",
"advise\\1",
"practise\\1",
"resist\\1",
"defend\\1",
"risk\\1",
"dislike\\1",
"fear\\1",
"feign\\1",
"delay\\1",
"confess\\1",
"escape (+ passive)\\1"]
nListA[4]=[
"yearn\\0",
"pledge\\0",
"elect\\0",
"endeavour\\0",
"resolve\\0",
"undertake\\0",
"beg\\0",
"determine\\0",
"consent\\0",
"desire\\0",
"negociate\\0",
"plead\\0",
"evade (+ passive)\\1",
"picture\\1",
"quit\\1",
"celebrate\\1",
"envisage\\1",
"abhor\\1",
"acknowledge\\1",
"adore\\1",
"support\\1",
"dispute\\1",
"discontinue\\1",
"detest\\1"]
nListA[5]=[
"volunteer\\0",
"hesitate\\0",
"incline\\0",
"profess\\0",
"omit\\0",
"rush\\0",
"request\\0",
"prove (turn out)\\0",
"strive\\0",
"struggle\\0",
"venture\\0",
"shirk\\1",
"shun\\1",
"resume\\1",
"postpone\\1",
"necessitate\\1",
"warrant\\1",
"recall\\1",
"recollect\\1",
"resent\\1",
"spend time\\1",
"tolerate\\1"]
// objects
var olistA=[]
olistA[0]=[
"advise\\0",
"allow\\0",
"appreciate\\1",
"ask\\0",
"beg\\0",
"can't stand\\1",
"catch\\1",
"cause\\0",
"command\\0",
"detest\\1",
"discover\\1",
"dislike\\1",
"dread\\1",
"enable\\0",
"encourage\\0",
"envisage\\1",
"expect\\0",
"feel\\1",
"understand\\1",
"report\\1",
"find (discover)\\1",
"find (get hold of)\\0",
"forbid\\0"]
olistA[1]=[
"force\\0",
"forget\\1",
"get\\0",
"hate\\1",
"(American English) have\\0",
"hear\\1",
"help\\0",
"imagine\\1",
"intend\\0",
"invite\\0",
"let\\0",
"like\\1",
"listen to\\1",
"look at\\1",
"love\\1",
"make\\0",
"miss\\1",
"not mind\\1",
"notice\\1",
"oblige\\0",
"observe\\1",
"order\\0",
"overhear\\1"]
olistA[2]=[
"pay\\0",
"permit\\0",
"persuade\\0",
"prefer\\0",
"press\\0",
"prevent\\1",
"recall\\1",
"recommend\\1",
"regret\\1",
"remember\\1",
"remind\\0",
"resent\\1",
"risk\\1",
"see\\1",
"sense\\1",
"start\\1",
"stop\\1",
"teach\\0",
"tell\\0",
"resent\\1",
"tolerate\\1",
"report\\1",
"train\\0",
"want\\0",
"warn\\0",
"watch\\1",
"would like\\0"]
// 0 about, 1 at, 2 between, 3 from, 4 for, 5 in, 6 into, 7 of, 8 on, 9 to
listA[2]=["abstain\\3\\from",
"aim\\1\\at",
"apologize\\4\\for",
"approve\\7\\of",
"bargain\\8\\on",
"believe\\5\\in",
"beware\\7\\of",
"boast\\0\\about",
"brag\\0\\about",
"choose\\2\\between",
"complain\\0\\about",
"concentrate\\8\\on",
"decide\\0\\on",
"disapprove\\7\\of",
"dream\\0\\about",
"escape\\3\\from",
"get out\\7\\of",
"excel\\1\\at",
"insist\\8\\on",
"joke\\0\\about",
"look\\6\\into",
"object\\9\\to",
"participate\\5\\in",
"persist\\5\\in",
"see\\0\\about",
"set\\0\\about",
"succeed\\5\\in",
"take part\\5\\in",
"think\\7\\of"]
//0 against, 1 for, 2 from, 3 into, 4 of, 5 on, 6 with, 7 up to
listA[3]=[
"accuse\\4\\of",
"acquit\\4\\of",
"advise\\0\\against",
"arrest\\1\\for",
"(The police) charge\\6\\with",
"(Shopkeepers) charge\\1\\with",
"(Things) begin\\6\\with",
"excuse\\1\\for",
"blame\\1\\for",
"compensate\\1\\for",
"condemn\\1\\for",
"congratulate\\5\\on",
"disapprove\\4\\of",
"fine\\1\\for",
"forgive\\1\\for",
"praise\\1\\for",
"put\\7\\up to",
"press\\3\\into",
"prevent\\2\\from",
"prohibit\\2\\from",
"punish\\1\\for",
"stop\\2\\from",
"approve\\4\\of",
"insist\\5\\on",
"thank\\1\\for"]
// that clauses
listA[4]=[
"admit\\0",
// "agree\\2",
// "answer\\0",
"anticipate\\0",
"ask\\2",
"assure\\1",
"beg\\2",
"believe\\0",
"calculate\\0",
"claim\\0",
"command\\2",
"complain\\0",
"confess\\0",
"confirm\\0",
"consider\\0",
"convince\\1",
"declare\\0",
"deny\\0",
"desire\\2",
"disclose\\0",
"explain\\0",
// "guarantee\\1",
"indicate\\0",
"inform\\1",
"insist\\2",
"instruct\\2",
"intend\\2",
"mention\\0",
"persuade\\1",
"pretend\\0",
"profess\\0",
// "promise\\1",
// "propose\\2",
"recall\\0",
"recollect\\0",
// "recommend\\2",
"remind\\1",
"request\\2",
"require\\2",
"say\\0",
"state\\0",
"stipulate\\2",
"tell\\1",
"urge\\2"]
//////////////////////////////// superceded //////////////////////////////
mlistA[0]=[
"be able\\0",
"choose\\0",
"decide\\0",
"enjoy\\1",
"expect\\0",
"keep on (= continue)\\1",
"(don't) mind\\1",
"can’t stand\\1",
"imagine\\1",
"love\\2",
"manage\\0",
"(don't) mind\\1",
"need\\0",
"plan\\0",
"practise\\1",
"promise\\0",
"refuse\\0"]
mlistA[1]=[
"seem\\0",
"tend\\0",
"want\\0",
"would like\\0",
"begin\\2",
"hate\\2",
"help\\0",
"attempt\\0",
"miss\\1",
"refuse\\0",
"fancy\\1",
"can’t stand\\1",
"deny\\1",
"try\\2",
"carry on\\1",
"remember\\2",
"hope\\0"]
//////////////////////////////////////////////
var cardsA=[]
var errorA=[]
var cardNum=0
var score=0
var errorNum=0
var errorMode=0
var myVar;
var quizLen=0
function clearVariables(){
cardsA.splice(0,cardsA.length)
errorA.splice(0,errorA.length)
cardNum=0
score=0
errorNum=0
errorMode=0
quizLen=0
}
function getVerblist(x){
if(x==0){
var ms=document.getElementById("mainSelect").selectedIndex
var newA=nListA[ms]
}
else if(x==1){
var os=document.getElementById("objectSelect").selectedIndex
var newA=olistA[os]
}
else if(x==5){
var newA=dListA
}
else{
var newA=listA[x]
}
return newA
}
function getShowVerbList(x){
if(x==0){
var oldA=nListA
}
else if(x==1){
var oldA=olistA
}
else if(x==5){
var newA=dListA
}
else{
var newA=listA[x]
}
if(x==0||x==1){
var newA=[]
var nc=0
for(var c=0;c<oldA.length;c++){
for(var c2=0;c2<oldA[c].length;c2++){
newA[nc]=oldA[c][c2]
nc++
}
}
}
return newA
}
function startGame(x){
clearVariables()
clearAllQuizzes()
var newA=getVerblist(x)
//alert(x+" / "+newA.length+" / "+newA)
var listTxt=newA.join("|")
var newListA=listTxt.split("|")
cardsA=randomArraySort(newListA)
quizLen=cardsA.length
clearBoxes(x)
nextCard(x)
}
function clearAllQuizzes(){
for(var c=0;c<4;c++){
document.getElementById("cardDiv"+c).innerHTML=""
document.getElementById("messageDiv"+c).innerHTML=" "
}
}
function getLength(x){
if(x==0){
var len=2
}
else if(x==1){
var len=2
}
else if(x==2){
var len=10
}
else if(x==3){
var len=8
}
else if(x==4){
var len=3
}
else if(x==5){
var len=2
}
return len
}
function clearBoxes(x){
var len=getLength(x)
for(var c=0;c<len;c++){
document.getElementById("ex"+x+"List"+c).innerHTML=""
}
}
function checkBrackets(txt){
if(txt.indexOf("(")!=-1){
var ltxt=txt.slice(0,txt.indexOf("("))
var rtxt=txt.slice(txt.indexOf(")")+1,txt.length)
var ytxt=rtxt+ltxt
}
else{
var ytxt=txt
}
return ytxt
}
function nextCard(x){
var txtA=cardsA[cardNum].split("\\")
var ytxt=checkBrackets(txtA[0])
if(x==2){
document.getElementById("cardDiv"+x).innerHTML=txtA[0]+" ... (doing) sth"
}
else if(x==3){
if(ytxt=="disapprove"||ytxt=="approve"||ytxt=="insist"||ytxt=="begin"){
document.getElementById("cardDiv"+x).innerHTML=txtA[0]+" ... sb doing sth"
}
else{
document.getElementById("cardDiv"+x).innerHTML=txtA[0]+" sb ... doing sth"
}
}
else{
document.getElementById("cardDiv"+x).innerHTML=txtA[0]
}
document.getElementById("messageDiv"+x).innerHTML=" "
}
function enterWord(x,y){
var txtA=cardsA[cardNum].split("\\")
if(y==txtA[1]){
boxDisplay(x,y,txtA[0])
score++
document.getElementById("messageDiv"+x).innerHTML="<span style='color:green;font-weight:bold;'>Well done! Score "+score+" / "+quizLen+".</span>"
}
else{
if(errorMode==0){
document.getElementById("messageDiv"+x).innerHTML="<span style='color:orange;font-weight:bold;'>Oops! Bad luck! Score "+score+" / "+quizLen+".</span>"
}
else{
document.getElementById("messageDiv"+x).innerHTML="<span style='color:orange;font-weight:bold;'>Oops! Bad luck! Try again.</span>"
}
if(errorMode==0){
errorA[errorNum]=cardsA[cardNum]
errorNum++
}
}
if(cardNum<cardsA.length-1){
if(errorMode==0){
myVar=setTimeout(function(){nextCard(x)},1000);
cardNum++
}
else if(errorMode==1&&x==txtA[1]){
myVar=setTimeout(function(){nextCard(x)},1000);
cardNum++
}
}
else{
document.getElementById("cardDiv"+x).innerHTML=""
if(errorNum==0){
document.getElementById("messageDiv"+x).innerHTML="<span style='color:green;font-weight:bold'>Well done! You have scored "+score+" / "+quizLen+".</span>"
}
else{
document.getElementById("messageDiv"+x).innerHTML="<span style='color:green;font-weight:bold'>You have scored "+score+" / "+quizLen+". Now try the ones you missed.</span>"
myVar=setTimeout(function(){doErrors(x,score)},1500);
}
}
}
function boxDisplay(x,y,ytxt){
var ytxt=checkBrackets(ytxt)
var listTxt=document.getElementById("ex"+x+"List"+y).innerHTML
if(listTxt==""){
document.getElementById("ex"+x+"List"+y).innerHTML=ytxt
}
else{
var listA=listTxt.split("<br>")
//alert(listA.length)
if(listA.length>6){
var end=6
}
else{
var end=listA.length
}
//alert(listA+"\n\n"+listA.length+" / "+end)
var txt=ytxt
for(var c=0;c<end;c++){
txt+="<br />"
txt+=listA[c]
}
document.getElementById("ex"+x+"List"+y).innerHTML=txt
}
}
function doErrors(x,totscore){
//alert(errorA.length)
//document.getElementById("cardDiv"+x).innerHTML=errorA[0]
var len=errorA.length
var listTxt=errorA.join("|")
var newListA=listTxt.split("|")
clearVariables()
quizLen=len
//errorMode=1
cardsA=randomArraySort(newListA)
//alert(quizLen)
nextCard(x)
}
function showAllBoxes(){
showVerbs(0)
showVerbs(1)
showVerbs(2)
showVerbs(3)
showVerbs(4)
showVerbs(5)
}
function clearAllBoxes(){
for(var c=0;c<6;c++){
var len=getLength(c)
for(var c2=0;c2<len;c2++){
document.getElementById("ex"+c+"List"+c2).innerHTML=""
}
}
}
function showVerbs(x){
var newA=getShowVerbList(x)
for(var c=0;c<newA.length;c++){
var lineA=newA[c].split("\\")
boxShow(x,lineA[1],lineA[0])
}
}
function boxShow(x,y,ytxt){
ytxt=checkBrackets(ytxt)
//alert(x+" / "+y)
var listTxt=document.getElementById("ex"+x+"List"+y).innerHTML
var listA=listTxt.split("<br>")
if(listTxt!=""&&listA.length!=0){
document.getElementById("ex"+x+"List"+y).innerHTML=listTxt+"<br />"+ytxt
}
else{
document.getElementById("ex"+x+"List"+y).innerHTML=ytxt
}
}
/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
var ansA=[]
ansA[1]=["visiting","to visit","to close","closing","asking","to ask","to study","studying","missing","to miss","to have","having","to tell","telling"]
ansA[2]=["to watch","thinking","going","to think","dealing","to admit","to have","having","watching","not to make","going","to wait"]
// -->
</script>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">When one verb follows another they can follow one of several patterns, for example: </div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">verb + <span class="bQ">to-</span>infinitive</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">verb + <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form (gerund)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">verb + <span class="bQ">to-</span>-infinitive / <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">verb + object + (<span class="bQ">to-</span>) infinitive</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">verb + object + <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">verb + <span class="bQ">that</span> clause</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">There are unfortunately no hard and fast rules as to what pattern to use, although a <span class="bQ">to-</span>infinitive often looks forward and/or involves an action - <span class="bQ">He decided to do it</span> (he decided, then he did it), while an <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form often looks back or is more about reactions, thought processes or emotions - <span class="bQ">She enjoys kite surfing</span> (she enjoys the experience). </div>
<div class="m10"><div class="m10">There's a link at the top of this page to a reference page with lists of verbs and their possible patterns, but the only real way to learn these patterns is through practice and exposure: ideally, <span class="bQ">'afford to do'</span> and <span class="bQ">'admit doing'</span>, etc, should come as automatically to learners as <span class="bQ">'sing, sang, sung'</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">The exercises in this post (especially the first one), will hopefully help you practise these patterns, so that they become automatic. There are also a couple of quizzes to practise using dependent prepositions after verbs.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="m10">Verbs that sometimes take an infinitive of purpose, meaning <span class="bQ">'in order to'</span>, are not generally included in these quizzes. </div>
<div class="exDiv"><div class="m10">In most of the quizzes you click on <span class="instr">'Start quiz'</span> to begin. A verb will appear above the table. Add it to the appropriate list by clicking on the box in the table where you think it should go. There are also a couple of standard exercises.</div>
<div class="m10">You can also see the verbs listed according to the patterns they follow. Click on the buttons following the answers at the end of this post.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv"><h3>1. Infinitive or <em>-ing</em> form (gerund)</h3>
<div class="m10">The first three sets contain the most frequently used verbs that take either a <span class="bQ">to-</span>infinitive or an <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form. Sets 4-6 include less common verbs. </div>
<div class="m20" style="text-align:center;">
<span class="instr">Quiz 1</span>
<select id="mainSelect" onchange="startGame(0)" class="clue">
<option>Set 1</option>
<option>Set 2</option>
<option>Set 3</option>
<option>Set 4</option>
<option>Set 5</option>
<option>Set 6</option>
</select>
<input class="clue" type="button" value="Start quiz" onclick="startGame(0)"/></div>
<div id="cardDiv0" class="instr" style="text-align:center;height:30px;"> </div>
<div id="messageDiv0" style="text-align:center;height:30px;"> </div>
<div id="tableOuter0">
<table class="entryTable" id="entryTable0">
<tr class="headerTr"><td onclick="enterWord(0,0)"><em> ... to do</em></td><td onclick="enterWord(0,1)"><em> ... doing</em></td></tr>
<tr class="entryTr"><td id="ex0List0" onclick="enterWord(0,0)"> </td><td id="ex0List1" onclick="enterWord(0,1)"> </td></tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>2. Verbs that can be followed by both infinitives and <em>-ing</em> forms</h3>
<div class="m10">There some verbs which can be used with either an infinitive or an <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form.</div>
<div class="m10">Sometimes there is no difference in meaning, for example <span class="bQ">begin</span>, sometimes there is only a little difference, for example <span class="bQ">like</span>, and sometimes the meaning is completely different, for example <span class="bQ">remember</span>.</div>
<div class="m10" style="text-align:center;"><input class="clue" type="button" value="Start quiz" onclick="startGame(5)"/></div>
<div id="cardDiv5" class="instr" style="text-align:center;height:30px;"> </div>
<div id="messageDiv5" style="text-align:center;height:30px;"> </div>
<div id="tableOuter5">
<table class="entryTable" id="entryTable5">
<tr class="headerTr"><td onclick="enterWord(5,0)">Little or small difference</td><td onclick="enterWord(5,1)">Difference in meaning</td></tr>
<tr class="entryTr"><td id="ex5List0" onclick="enterWord(5,0)"> </td><td id="ex5List1" onclick="enterWord(5,1)"> </td></tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="m10" style="text-align:center;"><a href="javascript:toggle(2)"><span id="displayText2">Show</span> my comments</a></div>
<div id="toggleText2" class="toggle"><div class="m10">These verbs fall into three groups</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">No difference in meaning - including:</span><br />
attempt, begin, cease, continue, intend, start</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">A small difference - including:</span><br />
can't bear, dread, hate, like, love, prefer<br />
</li class="m10">
<li><span class="normal">Completely different</span><br />
remember, forget, try, stop, go on, regret, mean</li>
</ul></div>
</div>
<h3>Infinitive or <em>-ing</em> form, with a different meaning</h3>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv2a">
<table class="eHdr"><tbody><tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 2a</td><td>Complete the sentences using the same verb from the box in each pair, once in a <span class="bQ">to-</span>infinitive once and once in an <span class="bQ">-ing </span>form.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div id="wordBox" class="wordbox" style="margin:10px 0;"><span class="optionWord">ask</span> · <span class="optionWord">close</span> · <span class="optionWord">have</span> · <span class="optionWord">miss</span> · <span class="optionWord">study</span> · <span class="optionWord">tell</span> · <span class="optionWord">visit</span> </div>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>I'll never forget <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap0" style="width:75px;" type="text"> Blackpool for the first time.</td><td id="ex1TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"></td><td>Don't forget <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap1" style="width:75px;" type="text"> the cathedral while you're there, it's really spectacular.</td><td id="ex1TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>Did you remember <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap2" style="width:75px;" type="text"> the window before we came out?</td><td id="ex1TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"></td><td>Do you remember <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap3" style="width:75px;" type="text"> the window before we came out?</td><td id="ex1TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>Have you tried <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap4" style="width:75px;" type="text"> Steve? He usually knows about these things.</td><td id="ex1TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"></td><td>I tried <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap5" style="width:75px;" type="text"> him, but he wouldn't listen.</td><td id="ex1TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>After getting a history degree at Manchester he went on <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap6" style="width:75px;" type="text"> law at Oxford. </td><td id="ex1TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"></td><td>After his first degree, he went on <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap7" style="width:75px;" type="text"> in order to get a master's degree.</td><td id="ex1TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>This extra work means <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap8" style="width:75px;" type="text"> our lunch date, I'm afraid</td><td id="ex1TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"></td><td>I didn't mean <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap9" style="width:75px;" type="text"> our lunch date, but I'm afraid something came up at work.</td><td id="ex1TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>We stopped <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap10" style="width:75px;" type="text"> lunch at a small country inn.</td><td id="ex1TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"></td><td>We stopped <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap11" style="width:75px;" type="text"> big lunches for health reasons.</td><td id="ex1TickBox11"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>I regret <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap12" style="width:75px;" type="text"> you that your work has not been up to standard.</td><td id="ex1TickBox12"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"> </td><td>He regrets <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap13" style="width:75px;" type="text"> her about his problem, as now the whole company seem to know.</td><td id="ex1TickBox13"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(1)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(1)" type="button"> <span id="messageArea1"></span></div>
</div>
<h3>Infinitive or <em>-ing</em> form, with a slightly different meaning</h3>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv2b">
<table class="eHdr"><tbody><tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 2b</td><td>Complete the sentences using the verbs in brackets. In each pair of sentences, use a <span class="bQ">to-</span>infinitive once and an <span class="bQ">-ing </span>form once.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="margin:10px 20px 20px 80px;font-weight:bold;"></div>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>This movie was so frightening I could hardly bear <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap0" style="width:75px;" type="text"> (watch) it.</td><td id="ex2TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"> </td><td>She couldn't bear <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap1" style="width:75px;" type="text"> (think) that she might have been wrong.</td><td id="ex2TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>He always dreaded <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap2" style="width:75px;" type="text"> (go) to the dentist.</td><td id="ex2TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"> </td><td>I dread <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap3" style="width:75px;" type="text"> (think) what she'll say when she finds out.</td><td id="ex2TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>He hates <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap4" style="width:75px;" type="text"> (deal) with difficult customers.</td><td id="ex2TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"> </td><td>I hate <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap5" style="width:75px;" type="text"> (admit) it, but I think you were probably right all along.</td><td id="ex2TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>I like <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap6" style="width:75px;" type="text"> (have) the car serviced at least every two years. </td><td id="ex2TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"> </td><td>She likes <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap7" style="width:75px;" type="text"> (have) her grandchildren live near her. </td><td id="ex2TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>Do you usually prefer <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap8" style="width:75px;" type="text"> (watch) films at the cinema or at home?</td><td id="ex2TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"></td><td>On that particular occasion he preferred <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap9" style="width:75px;" type="text"> (not make) any comment.</td><td id="ex2TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>Well, I propose <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap10" style="width:75px;" type="text"> (go) out to the country. It'll do us all a lot of good.</td><td id="ex2TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum"></td><td>I propose <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap11" style="width:75px;" type="text"> (wait) for him here. The rest of you can do what you like.</td><td id="ex2TickBox11"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(2)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(2)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printVerbEx()" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea2"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>3. Verb + object + infinitive or <em>-ing</em> form (gerund)</h3>
<div class="m10">Most verbs followed by object + <span class="bQ">to-</span>infinitive are connected with causing somebody to do something, for example, <span class="bQ">to tell sb to do sth</span>. Note that there are three verbs in this group which don't take <span class="bQ">to</span>, and one that can be used with or without <span class="bQ">to</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">Verbs followed by object + <span class="bQ">-ing</span> fall largely fall into two main groups - expressing an attitude, eg: <span class="bQ">to like somebody('s) doing sth</span>, and verbs of perception, eg: <span class="bQ">to see sb doing sth</span></div>
<div class="m20" style="text-align:center;">
<span class="instr">Quiz 3</span>
<select id="objectSelect" onchange="startGame(1)" class="clue">
<option>Set 1</option>
<option>Set 2</option>
<option>Set 3</option>
</select>
<input class="clue" type="button" value="Start quiz" onclick="startGame(1)"/></div>
<div id="cardDiv1" class="instr" style="text-align:center;height:30px;"> </div>
<div id="messageDiv1" style="text-align:center;height:30px;"> </div>
<div id="tableOuter1">
<table class="entryTable" id="entryTable1">
<tr class="headerTr"><td onclick="enterWord(1,0)">... somebody (to) do something</td><td onclick="enterWord(1,1)">... somebody doing something</td></tr>
<tr class="entryTr"><td id="ex1List0" onclick="enterWord(1,0)"> </td><td id="ex1List1" onclick="enterWord(1,1)"> </td></tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="m10" style="text-align:center;"><a href="javascript:toggle(1)"><span id="displayText1">Show</span> my comments</a></div>
<div id="toggleText1" class="toggle">
<div class="m10">
<div class="m10">We can divide each of these two groups into three subgroups:</div>
<h4>verb + object + infinitive</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">verb + object + <span class="bQ">to-</span>infinitive - express a causal effect</span>
<p>ask, cause, encourage, force, order, tell, <span class="normal">etc</span> somebody to do sth</p></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">verb + object + infinitive (without <span class="bQ">to</span>) - 3 verbs</span>
<p>have, let, make somebody do sth</p></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">verb + object + infinitive (without or without <span class="bQ">to</span>) - 1 verb</span>
<p>help somebody (to) do sth</p></li>
</ul>
<h4>verb + object + <em>-ing</em> form (gerund)</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">verbs expressing attitudes and emotions - in formal English these are sometimes used with possessives</span>
<p>like, hate, approve of, <span class="normal">etc</span> somebody('s) doing sth</p></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">verbs of perception - these verbs can also be used with a bare infinitive - an <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form suggest that the action was in progress when perceived, a bare infinitive suggests that the subject perceived the whole, completed action. Possessives cannot be used with these verbs.</span>
<p>see, hear, notice, <span class="normal">etc</span> somebody doing sth / somebody do sth</p></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">a few verbs take neither a possessive nor a bare infinitive</span>
<p>catch, discover, find, smell somebody doing sth</p></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>4. Verb + preposition (+ <em>-ing</em>) something</h3>
<div class="m10">This exercise concerns dependent prepositions after certain verbs - the preposition can usually be followed by a noun phrase or an <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form. In some cases there may be more than one answer.</div>
<div class="m20" style="text-align:center;"><span class="instr">Quiz 4 </span> <input class="clue" type="button" value="Start quiz" onclick="startGame(2)"/></div>
<div id="cardDiv2" class="instr" style="text-align:center;height:30px;"> </div>
<div id="messageDiv2" style="text-align:center;height:30px;"> </div>
<div id="tableOuter2">
<table class="entryTable" id="entryTable2">
<tr class="headerTr"><td onclick="enterWord(2,0)">about</td><td onclick="enterWord(2,1)">at</td><td onclick="enterWord(2,2)" >between</td><td onclick="enterWord(2,3)">from</td><td onclick="enterWord(2,4)">for</td></tr>
<tr class="entryTr"><td id="ex2List0" onclick="enterWord(2,0)"> </td><td id="ex2List1" onclick="enterWord(2,1)"> </td><td id="ex2List2" onclick="enterWord(2,2)"> </td><td id="ex2List3" onclick="enterWord(2,3)"> </td><td id="ex2List4" onclick="enterWord(2,4)"> </td></tr>
<tr class="headerTr"><td onclick="enterWord(2,5)">in</td><td onclick="enterWord(2,6)">into</td><td onclick="enterWord(2,7)">of</td><td onclick="enterWord(2,8)">on</td><td onclick="enterWord(2,9)">to</td></tr>
<tr class="entryTr"><td id="ex2List5" onclick="enterWord(2,5)"> </td><td id="ex2List6" onclick="enterWord(2,6)"> </td><td id="ex2List7" onclick="enterWord(2,7)"> </td><td id="ex2List8" onclick="enterWord(2,8)"> </td><td id="ex2List9" onclick="enterWord(2,9)"> </td></tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>5. Verb + somebody + preposition + <em>-ing</em></h3>
<div class="m10">This quiz is to practise dependent prepositions followed bt an <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form that come after the object, a person, with certain verbs. For some prepositions there is only one verb listed.</div>
<div class="m20" style="text-align:center;"><span class="instr">Quiz 5</span> <input class="clue" type="button" value="Start quiz" onclick="startGame(3)"/></div>
<div id="cardDiv3" class="instr" style="text-align:center;height:30px;"> </div>
<div id="messageDiv3" style="text-align:center;height:30px;"> </div>
<div id="tableOuter3">
<table class="entryTable" id="entryTable2">
<tr class="headerTr"><td onclick="enterWord(3,0)">against</td><td onclick="enterWord(3,1)">for</td><td onclick="enterWord(3,2)" >from</td><td onclick="enterWord(3,3)">into</td></tr>
<tr class="entryTr"><td id="ex3List0" onclick="enterWord(3,0)"> </td><td id="ex3List1" onclick="enterWord(3,1)"> </td><td id="ex3List2" onclick="enterWord(3,2)"> </td><td id="ex3List3" onclick="enterWord(3,3)"> </td></tr>
<tr class="headerTr"><td onclick="enterWord(3,4)">of</td><td onclick="enterWord(3,5)">on</td><td onclick="enterWord(3,6)">with</td><td onclick="enterWord(3,7)">up to</td></tr>
<tr class="entryTr"><td id="ex3List4" onclick="enterWord(3,4)"> </td><td id="ex3List5" onclick="enterWord(3,5)"> </td><td id="ex3List6" onclick="enterWord(3,6)"> </td><td id="ex3List7" onclick="enterWord(3,7)"> </td></tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>6. Verb + <em>that</em> clause</h3>
<div class="m10">Many verbs can be followed by a <span class="bQ">that-</span>clause, especially, for example, reporting verbs - <span class="bQ">He said that he would be late</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">Some verbs need an object before the <span class="bQ">that-</span>clause - <span class="bQ">He told me that he would be late</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">And some verbs, mostly connected with asking and ordering, take a special structure with a bare infinitive or <span class="bQ">should</span> + bare infinitive <span class="bQ">He insisted I be (should) at the meeting</span>. The version without <span class="bQ">should</span> is common in American English, but is considered rather formal in British English. </div>
<div class="m10">Some verbs may fall into more than one category.</div>
<div class="m20" style="text-align:center;"><span class="instr">Quiz 6</span> <input class="clue" type="button" value="Start quiz" onclick="startGame(4)"/></div>
<div id="cardDiv4" class="instr" style="text-align:center;height:30px;"> </div>
<div id="messageDiv4" style="text-align:center;height:30px;"> </div>
<div id="tableOuter4">
<table class="entryTable" id="entryTable4">
<tr class="headerTr"><td onclick="enterWord(4,0)">verb + that + clause</td><td onclick="enterWord(4,1)">verb + obj + that + clause</td><td onclick="enterWord(4,2)">verb + that + subj + (should) + bare infinitive </td></tr>
<tr class="entryTr"><td id="ex4List0" onclick="enterWord(4,0)"> </td><td id="ex4List1" onclick="enterWord(4,1)"> </td><td id="ex4List2" onclick="enterWord(4,2)"> </td></tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Answers</h3>
<div class="m10">
<input class="clue" value="Ex 2a" onclick="showGapBoxes(1)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Ex 2b" onclick="showGapBoxes(2)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Show both" onclick="showAll()" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear both" onclick="clearAll()" type="button">
</div>
<h3>Show lists</h3>
<div class="m10">
<input type="button" class="clue" value="1. Main list" onclick="showVerbs(0)"/><input type="button" class="clue" value="2. Both inf and -ing" onclick="showVerbs(5)"/><input type="button" class="clue" value="3. Verbs + objects" onclick="showVerbs(1)"/></div>
<div class="m10">
<input type="button" class="clue" value="4. Verb + preposition 1" onclick="showVerbs(2)"/><input type="button" class="clue" value="5. Verbs + prep 2" onclick="showVerbs(3)"/><input type="button" class="clue" value="6. Verb + that clause" onclick="showVerbs(4)"/>
</div>
<div class="m10">
<input class="clue" value="Show all lists" onclick="showAllBoxes()" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear all lists" onclick="clearAllBoxes()" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print all lists" onclick="printAllLists()" type="button">
</div>
</div>
<div class="m10">
<h3>Related post</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/p/verb-patterns.html">Verb patterns</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/08/random-quiz-prepositions-after-verbs.html">Dependent prepositions after verbs</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2013/06/passive-reporting-structures.html">Passive reporting structures</a></li>
</ul>
<h3>Links</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.engvid.com/english-resource/verbs-followed-by-gerunds-and-infinitives/">EnglishVid</a> - lists</li>
<li><a href="http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/verbs-followed-infinitive">British Council Learn English</a> - verbs followed by an infinitive</li>
<li><a href="http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/verbs-followed-ing-clauses">British Council Learn English</a> - verbs followed by <span class="bQ">-ing</span> forms</li>
<li><a href="http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/verbs-followed-that-clause">British Council Learn English</a> - <span class="bQ">that</span>-clauses</li>
<li><a href="http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/index.htm">English Page</a> - detailed explanations and lots of exercises</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-30746259706693468142014-11-02T11:44:00.000+01:002014-11-15T00:04:42.994+01:00Inversion with so, such and as - exercises<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">Here are a couple of exercises on inversion with <span class="bQ">so, such</span> and <span class="bQ">as</span>, and a rather nerdy discussion of inversion after <span class="bQ">than</span>. You can find out much more about inversion, and about why we use inversion and fronting, at a rather longer post I wrote recently (link below).</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Subject-auxiliary inversion</h3>
<div class="m10">The most common forms of subject-auxiliary inversion include:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">conditionals</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">negative inversion</span></li>
<li><span class="nml"><span class="bQ">so</span> and <span class="bQ">such</span></span></li>
<li><span class="nml">after <span class="bQ">as</span></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">As I've already posted lots of exercises on inversion in conditionals and on negative inversion (see links at the end), only the last two are included here.</div>
<div class="m10">Not so common:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml"><span class="bQ">than</span> + inversion in comparatives - see discussion</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Exclamations (especially in American English)</span><br />
Well, <span class="lw">have</span> <span class="hl">we</span> got a surprise for you!</li>
<li><span class="nml">Hopes and wishes starting with <span class="bQ">may</span></span><br />
<span class="lw">May</span> <span class="hl">the force</span> be with you!</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div id="exDiv1" class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3><em>So</em> and <em>such</em></h3>
<div class="m10">In constructions with <span class="bQ">so</span> + adjective / adverb + <span class="bQ">that</span> clause, and noun + linking verb + <span class="bQ">such</span> + <span class="bQ">that</span> clause, we can front the <span class="bQ">so</span> or <span class="bQ">such</span> expression:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>She was so exhausted that she went straight to bed.<br />
<span class="ft">So exhausted</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">she</span> that she went straight to bed.</li>
<li>He played the tune so badly that nobody recognised it.<br />
<span class="ft">So badly</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">he</span> play the tune that nobody recognised it.</li>
<li>The extent of the damage was such that the car was a total write-off.<br />
<span class="ft">Such</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the extent of the dammage</span> that the car was a total write-off.</li>
</ul>
<div id="div1">
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 1</td><td>Rewrite the sentences following the model above.</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>He was so excited that he could hardly sleep.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex1gap0" style="width: 500px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,0)">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex1TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>His experience was such that he knew what to do immediately.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex1gap1" style="width: 500px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,1)">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex1TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>She performed it so well that many said that it was perfect.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex1gap2" style="width: 500px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,2)">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex1TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>He became so angry that he stormed out of the room.<be><input class="textBox" id="ex1gap3" style="width: 500px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,3)">. </be></td><td class="tb" id="ex1TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>The situation was such that the smallest incident could have started a riot.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex1gap4" style="width: 500px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,4)">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex1TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>He had been working so hard that he had hardly seen his family.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex1gap5" style="width: 500px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,5)">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex1TickBox5"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv2" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3><em>As</em> + auxiliary / subject inversion</h3>
<div class="m10">We can begin a second clause or sentence with <span class="bQ">as</span> + auxiliary (or <span class="bQ">be</span>) to say that somebody does the same thing as somebody already mentioned, in which case inversion occurs:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Italy produces many excellent wines, and Spain does too.<br />
Italy produces many excellent wines, as <span class="lw">does</span> <span class="hl">Spain</span>.</li>
<li>France is a founder member of the EU. Belgium is a founder member too.<br />
France is is a founder member of the EU, as <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">Belgium</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="nml"><span class="instr">Note</span> - there is no inversion when the subjects of the two clauses are the same:</span></div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Denmark has won this year's 'happiest country' award. It wins it every year.<br />
Denmark has won this year's 'happiest country' award, as it does every year.</li>
</ul>
<div id="div2">
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 2</td><td>Complete the sentences, starting with <span class="bQ">as</span>. There is one sentence where you don't invert.</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>They launched a new model last week. Their main competitor launched one too. <br>They launched a new model last week, <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap0" style="width:250px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,0)">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex2TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>We have complained to the council about it. Our neighbours have also complained.<br>We have complained to the council about it, <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap1" style="width:250px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,1)">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex2TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>She went on holiday to the Bahamas. She goes there every year.<br>She went on holiday to the Bahamas, <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap2" style="width:250px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,2)">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex2TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>The Czech Republic is famous for its beer, and so is Belgium.<br>The Czech Republic is famous for its beer, <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap3" style="width:250px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,3)">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex2TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>They might be a bit late due to the traffic. Some of the other guests might be late too.<br>They might be a bit late due to the traffic, <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap4" style="width:250px;" type="text" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,4)">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex2TickBox4"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(2)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(2)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(2)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea2"></span></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Inversion in comparatives after <em>than</em> - a discussion</h3>
<div class="m10">Some EFL books give examples of subject-auxiliary inversion after <span class="bQ">than</span> in comparatives, for example:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><p>Children living in villages watch more television than <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">their counterparts in inner city areas</span><br />
<span class="nml">(Advanced Grammar in Use - Martin Hewings)</span></p></li>
<li><p>City dwellers have a higher death rate than <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">country people</span>.<br />
<span class="nml">(Practical English in Use - Michael Swan)</span></p></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">I have to say, however, that I do not find this kind of inversion very natural, and I would advise learners to generally avoid it. Some famous commentators have also expressed their disapproval: Henry Fowler, author of <em>A Dictionary of Modern English Usage</em> (1926) called it <span class="ref" title="deprecate - to feel and express strong disapproval of something (OALD)">'deprecated'</span>, as apparently did another 'grand old man' of English usage, Sir Ernest Gowers, the editor of the 2nd edition (1965), while the editor of the 3rd edition, RW Burchfield (1996), calls it 'rare'.</div>
<div class="m10">On one website, a commenter gives this example, suggesting that inversion is necessary here, perhaps because some people are reluctant to end a sentence with <span class="bQ">'are'</span>, or perhaps because of the length of the second phrase:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="ul">The infants of humans</span> are more helpless than <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl"><span class="ul">those of most other animals</span></span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">It has been suggested (in the Cambridge Grammar of the English Grammar) that inversion here serves to put the contrastive subject of the second clause in end position, giving it more prominence. So, in the sentence above, we have the two contrasted elemants (underlined above) at the beginning and at the end.</div>
<div class="m10">And while I agree that sentences with <span class="bQ">be</span> perhaps sound more natural inverted than (do) those with <span class="bQ">do</span> and especially than those with <span class="bQ">have</span>, we don't in fact usually need the second verb at all, and both Fowler and Bryan Garner, author of <em>Garner's Modern American Usage</em> (2003) recommend dropping it altogether. And we can still keep the contrasted element at the end. So the most natural version of those three sentences would probably be:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><p><span class="ul">The infants of humans</span> are more helpless than <span class="ul">those of most other animals</span>.</p></li>
<li><p><span class="ul">Children living in villages</span> watch more television than <span class="ul">their counterparts in inner city areas</span>.</p></li>
<li><p><span class="ul">City dwellers</span> have a higher death rate than <span class="ul">country people</span>.</p></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">There are a couple of things to note about comparative clauses with <span class="bQ">than</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">this kind of inversion is never used with pronouns</span><br />
He is considerably better informed about this than I am.<br />
<span class="strike">He is considerably better informed about this than am I.</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">you're probably better leaving the auxiliary in if there's any room for ambiguity</span><br />
My brother knows more about cars than I do<br />
<p><span class="nml">Taken out of context <span class="bQ">My brother knows more about cars than me</span> might suggest that he knows more about cars than he knows about me.</span></p></li>
<li><span class="nml">If there are two auxiliaries, we either invert both together, or keep both together at the end, or miss them out altogether:</span><br />
It is no more expensive than <span class="lw">would be</span> <span class="hl">the system we are proposing</span><br />It is no more expensive than <span class="hl">the system we are proposing</span> (would be).<br />
<span class="nml">BUT NOT</span><br />
<span class="strike">It is no more expensive than would the system you are proposing be</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">We can only invert auxiliaries, not whole verbs:</span><br />
He earns more than (does) the chief executive.<br />
<span class="strike">He earns more than earns the chief executive</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Inversion doesn't seem to work when comparing adverbial expressions</span><br />
<span class="strike">Sales <span class="ul">this year</span> are significantly better than <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">sales</span> <span class="ul">last year</span></span>.
<p><span class="nml">It seems to work better when we directly compare subjects:</span><br />
<span class="ul">This year's sales</span> are significantly better than <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl"><span class="ul">those of last year</span></span>.</p>
<p><span class="nml">Or we can use a pronoun and simply forget inversion:</span><br />
Sales <span class="ul">this year</span> are significantly better than they were <span class="ul">last year</span></span></p></li>
</ul>
<h4>The exception - <em>than is the case</em> - when inversion is the norm</h4>
<div class="m10">You might occasionally come across this construction - comparative + <span class="bQ">'than is the case'</span> usually followed by <span class="bQ">with</span> or <span class="bQ">in</span>. This is always inverted and sounds quite natural, but it can often be left out in a less formal style (as is shown by the brackets I've added).</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><p>In the UK, a bigger portion of welfare is funded by the state than (<span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the case</span>) in Poland, France, Germany or the Netherlands. <span class="nml">(BBC)</span></p></li>
<li><p>These areas look set to weaken more than (<span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the case</span> with) areas with fewer public sector employees.<span class="nml"> (The Guardian)</span></p></li>
<li><p>And the dangers of global deflation are greater and more difficult to control than (<span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the case</span> with) global inflation. <span class="nml">(The Economist)</span></p></li>
<li>A higher proportion of Americans go on to higher education than (<span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the case</span>) in Britain. <span class="nml">(Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Answers</h3>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Ex 1" onclick="showGapBoxes(1)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Ex 2" onclick="showGapBoxes(2)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Show all" onclick="showAll()" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear all" onclick="clearAll()" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print both exercises" onclick="printEx(55)" type="button"></div>
</div>
<h3>Related posts</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2014/09/exploring-inversion-and-fronting.html">Exploring inversion and fronting</a> - a fairly long and detailed discussion</li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/01/making-sense-of-negative-inversion.html">Making sense of negative inversion, hopefully</a> - step-by-step exercises</li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/05/negative-inversion-practice-exercises.html">Negative inversion - exercises</a> - more exercises</li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2013/01/inversion-in-conditionals.html">Inversion in conditionals</a> - step-by-step exercises plus discussion</li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2014/10/fronting-exercises-with-bit-of-subject.html">Fronting exercises (with a bit of subject-verb inversion)</a> - Lots of step-by-step exercises on fronting </li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2012/04/emphasis-focussing-with-cleft-sentences.html">Focussing with cleft clauses</a> - explanations and exercises</li>
</ul>
<h3>Links</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://thegrammarexchange.infopop.cc/eve/forums/a/tpc/f/340600179/m/4516041035">The Grammar Exchange - forum</a></li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-69256210330452920292014-11-01T14:52:00.001+01:002014-11-01T15:29:23.729+01:00Teacher tools - Word shapes<script type="text/javascript">
<!--
////////////////////////////////////////////
function writeInner(addr,txt,loc){
if(document.getElementById(addr)==null){
alert("jumbleInner - "+addr)
}
else{
document.getElementById(addr).innerHTML=txt
}
}
function getInner(addr){
if(document.getElementById(addr)==null){
alert("getInner - "+addr)
}
else{
var txt=document.getElementById(addr).innerHTML
return txt
}
}
function writeValue(addr,txt,loc){
if(document.getElementById(addr)==null){
alert("WriteValue - "+addr)
}
document.getElementById(addr).value=txt
}
function getValue(addr){
if(document.getElementById(addr)==null){
alert("GetValue - "+addr)
}
else{
var txt=document.getElementById(addr).value
return txt
}
}
function writeIndex(addr,x){
if(addr==null||document.getElementById(addr)==null){
alert('writeIndex'+"\n"+addr)
}
document.getElementById(addr).selectedIndex=x
}
function getIndex(addr){
if(addr==null||document.getElementById(addr)==null){
alert('getIndex'+"\n"+addr)
}
else{
var x=document.getElementById(addr).selectedIndex
}
//alert(addr+"\n"+x)
return x
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function writeChecked(checktxt,x){
var cb=document.getElementById(checktxt)
cb.checked=x
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function getChecked(checktxt){
var cb=document.getElementById(checktxt)
if(checktxt==null||cb==null){
alert('getChecked'+"\n"+checktxt+"\n"+cb)
}
if(cb.checked==true){
return true
}
else{
return false
}
}
function getById(addr){
return document.getElementById(addr)
}
////////////////////////////// Set page //////////////////////////////////
function getTitle(){
var txt=getValue("titlearea")
return txt
}
function getBorder(){
if(getChecked("borderCheck")==true){
var txt="border:solid silver 1px;padding:5px;"
}
else{
var txt=""
}
return txt
}
function doWordShape(){
var ttxt=getTitle()
var txt=getValue("pastearea")
var totalA=txt.split("\n")
var lineA=[] // boxedwords
var lineB=[] // pics /definitions
var lineC=[] // original words
for(var c1=0;c1<=totalA.length-1;c1++){
if(totalA[c1].indexOf("\\")!=-1){
var wtxtA=totalA[c1].split("\\")
var wtxt=wtxtA[0]
lineB[c1]=wtxtA[1]
}
else{
var wtxt=totalA[c1]
lineB[c1]=""
}
lineA[c1]=makeBoxedWords(wtxt)
lineC[c1]=wtxt
}
var wsi=getIndex("wsStyleSelect")
// simple
if(wsi==0){
var newwordtxt=makeWordShapeTable(lineA)
}
// anagrams
else if(wsi==1){
var newwordtxt=makeWordShapeAnagramsTable(lineA,lineC)
}
// show words
else if(wsi==2){
var newwordtxt=makeWordShapeTable(lineA,lineB)
var stxt=makeWordBox(lineC)
newwordtxt=stxt+newwordtxt
}
// show pictures above
else if(wsi==3){
var txt=makePicsTable(lineB)
var stxt=makeWordShapeTable(lineA,lineB)
newwordtxt=txt+stxt
}
// show definition
else if(wsi==4){
var stxt=makeWordShapeTableDefinitions(lineA,lineB)
//alert(txt)
newwordtxt=stxt
}
// anagrams and pictures above
else if(wsi==5){
var stxt=makeWordShapeAnagramsPictureTable(lineA,lineB,lineC)
newwordtxt=stxt
}
// show pictures inline
else if(wsi==6){
var stxt=makeWordShapePicturesInlineTable(lineA,lineB)
newwordtxt=stxt
}
var fs=getFont()
var bs=getBorder()
newwordtxt="<div style='margin:0;"+fs+bs+"'><h4 style='text-align:center;color:#3399bb;'>"+ttxt+"</h4>"+newwordtxt+"</div>"
writeInner("matchtable",newwordtxt)
}
// makes the boxes
function makeBoxedWords(wtxt){
var newA=wtxt.split("")
var wordtxt=""
for(var c=0;c<=newA.length-1;c++){
if(c>0){
var postxt="position:relative;left:-"+c+"px;"
}
else{
var postxt=""
}
if(newA[c]==" "){
wordtxt=wordtxt+"<span style='padding:12px 5px 2px 5px;'> </span>"
}
else if(newA[c].charCodeAt(0)<97){
wordtxt=wordtxt+"<span style='border:solid gray 1px;padding:12px 5px 1px 13px;"+postxt+"'> </span>"
}
else if(newA[c]=="b"||newA[c]=="d"||newA[c]=="f"||newA[c]=="h"||newA[c]=="k"||newA[c]=="l"||newA[c]=="t"){
wordtxt=wordtxt+"<span style='border:solid gray 1px;padding:12px 3px 1px 3px;"+postxt+"'> </span>"
}
else if(newA[c]=="g"||newA[c]=="j"||newA[c]=="p"||newA[c]=="q"||newA[c]=="l"||newA[c]=="y"){
wordtxt=wordtxt+"<span style='border:solid gray 1px;padding:1px 3px 12px 3px;"+postxt+"'> </span>"
}
else{
wordtxt=wordtxt+"<span style='border:solid gray 1px;padding:1px 3px 1px 3px;"+postxt+"'> </span>"
}
}
return wordtxt
}
// ws=0
function makeWordShapeTable(newA){
var txt=""
var x=getIndex("colNumselect")
if(x>0){
var ctr=x+1
}
else{
var ctr=2
}
var len=Math.ceil(newA.length/ctr)
var num=0
for(var c=0;c<len;c++){
txt=txt+"<tr style='line-height:4;'>"
for(var c2=0;c2<ctr;c2++){
if(newA[num]!=null){
txt+="<td style='width:20px;'>"+(num+1)+". </td>"
if(c2<ctr-1){
txt=txt+"<td style='padding-right:20px;'>"+newA[num]+"</td>"
}
else{
txt=txt+"<td>"+newA[num]+"</td>"
}
num++
}
}
txt+="</tr>"
}
txt="<div style='clear:both;margin:auto;'><table style='font-size:110%;letter-spacing:3px;margin:auto;'>"+txt+"</table></div>"
return txt
}
function makeWordShapeTableDefinitions(lineA,lineB){
var txt=""
var x=getIndex("colNumselect")
if(x>0){
var ctr=x+1
}
else{
var ctr=2
}
var len=Math.ceil(lineA.length/ctr)
var num=0
for(var c=0;c<len;c++){
txt=txt+"<tr>"
for(var c2=0;c2<ctr;c2++){
if(lineA[num]!=null){
txt+="<td style='width:20px;vertical-align:top;'>"+(num+1)+". </td>"
if(c2<ctr-1){
txt+="<td style='padding-right:20px;vertical-align:top;'><p style='padding-bottom:20px;margin:0;'>"+lineB[num]+"</p><p style='padding-bottom:20px;margin:0;'>"+lineA[num]+"</p></td>"
}
else{
txt+="<td style='vertical-align:top;'><p style='padding-bottom:20px;margin:0;'>"+lineB[num]+"</p><p style='padding-bottom:20px;margin:0;'>"+lineA[num]+"</p></td>"
}
num++
}
}
txt+="</tr>"
}
txt="<div style='clear:both;margin:auto;'><table style='font-size:110%;letter-spacing:3px;margin:auto;'>"+txt+"</table></div>"
return txt
}
// newA=boxed words, lineB = pics, lineC = original words
function makeWordShapeAnagramsTable(lineA,lineC){
var newA=lineA
var wtxt=lineC.join("|")
var wordA=wtxt.split("|")
var txt=""
var x=getIndex("colNumselect")
if(x>0){
var ctr=x+1
}
else{
var ctr=2
}
var len=Math.ceil(newA.length/ctr)
var num=0
for(var c=0;c<len;c++){
txt=txt+"<tr style='line-height:4;'>"
for(var c2=0;c2<ctr;c2++){
if(newA[num]!=null){
txt+="<td style='width:20px;vertical-align:top;'>"+(num+1)+".</td>"
var anagtxt=makeRandomWord(wordA[num])
txt+="<td style='padding-right:20px;'>"+anagtxt+"<br />"+newA[num]+"</td>"
num++
}
}
txt+="</tr>"
}
txt="<div style='clear:both;margin:auto;'><table style='font-size:110%;font-weight:bold;letter-spacing:1.5;margin:auto;'>"+txt+"</table></div>"
return txt
}
function makeWordShapeAnagramsPictureTable(lineA,lineB,lineC){
var newA=lineA
var wtxt=lineC.join("|")
var wordA=wtxt.split("|")
var txt=""
var x=getIndex("colNumselect")
if(x>0){
var ctr=x+1
}
else{
var ctr=2
}
var len=Math.ceil(newA.length/ctr)
var num=0
for(var c=0;c<len;c++){
txt=txt+"<tr style='line-height:4;'>"
for(var c2=0;c2<ctr;c2++){
if(newA[num]!=null){
txt+="<td style='width:20px;vertical-align:top;'>"+(num+1)+".</td>"
var anagtxt=makeRandomWord(wordA[num])
if(lineB[num]!=null){
var pictxt=lineB[num]
pictxt=makePictxt(pictxt)
txt+="<td style='padding-right:20px;'>"+pictxt+"</td>"
txt+="<td style='padding-right:20px;'>"+anagtxt+"<br />"+newA[num]+"</td>"
}
else{
txt+="<td style='padding-right:20px;'>"+anagtxt+"<br />"+newA[num]+"</td>"
}
num++
}
}
txt+="</tr>"
}
txt="<div style='clear:both;margin:auto;'><table style='font-size:110%;font-weight:bold;letter-spacing:1.5;margin:auto;'>"+txt+"</table></div>"
return txt
}
function makeWordShapePicturesInlineTable(lineA,lineB){
var newA=lineA
var txt=""
var x=getIndex("colNumselect")
if(x>0){
var ctr=x+1
}
else{
var ctr=2
}
var len=Math.ceil(newA.length/ctr)
var num=0
for(var c=0;c<len;c++){
txt=txt+"<tr style='line-height:4;'>"
for(var c2=0;c2<ctr;c2++){
if(newA[num]!=null){
txt+="<td style='width:20px;vertical-align:top;'>"+(num+1)+".</td>"
var pictxt=lineB[num]
pictxt=makePictxt(pictxt)
txt+="<td style='padding-right:20px;'>"+pictxt+"</td>"
txt+="<td style='padding-right:20px;'>"+newA[num]+"</td>"
num++
}
}
txt+="</tr>"
}
txt="<div style='clear:both;margin:auto;'><table style='font-size:110%;font-weight:bold;letter-spacing:1.5;margin:auto;'>"+txt+"</table></div>"
return txt
}
/////////////////////////////////
function makePictxt(pictxt){
if(pictxt!=""){
var txt="<img src='"+pictxt+"' style='max-width:120px;max-height:120px;'>"
}
else{txt=""}
return txt
}
function makeRandomWord(txt){
if(txt.indexOf(" ")!=-1){
var lineA=txt.split(" ")
var anagtxt=randomBasic(lineA[0],"","")
for(var c1=1;c1<=lineA.length-1;c1++){
anagtxt+=" "+randomBasic(lineA[c1],"","")
}
}
else{
var anagtxt=randomBasic(txt,"","")
}
return anagtxt
}
function makePicsTable(lineB){
var txt=""
for(var c=0;c<=lineB.length-1;c++){
var pictxt=makePictxt(lineB[c])
txt=txt+"<span style='height:150px;width:150px;margin:10px;' >"+pictxt+"</span>"
}
txt="<center><div style='margin:20px 0;max-width:700px;'>"+txt+"</div></center>"
return txt
}
function makeWordBox(newA){
newA=randomArraySort(newA)
//newA=arrayToUpperCase(newA)
var colnum=makeAutoCols(newA.length)
var colc=1
var ttxt="<table><tr>"
for(var c=0;c<=newA.length-1;c++){
ttxt=ttxt+"<td style='padding-right:30px;'>"+newA[c]+"</td>"
if(c==colnum*colc-1){
ttxt=ttxt+"</tr><tr>"
colc++
}
}
ttxt=ttxt+"</tr></table>"
txt="<div style='border:solid gray 2px;padding:10px;margin:15px 0;'><center>"+ttxt+"</center></div>"
return txt
}
function makeAutoCols(len){
var x=getIndex("colNumselect")
if(x==0){
if(len==3||len==6||len==9){
var cols=3
}
else if(len==4||len==8||len==12||len==16){
var cols=4
}
else if(len==5||len==10||len==15||len==20){
var cols=5
}
else{
cols=4
}
}
else{
var colswidth=new Array(0,2,3,4,5,6)
var cols=colswidth[x]
}
return cols
}
function getFont(){
var fontA=["ariel","times","verdana","comic sans ms","georgia","Palatino","franklin"]
var fs=document.getElementById("fontselect").selectedIndex
var txt="font-family:"+fontA[fs]+";"
return txt
}
/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
var egA=[]
egA[0]=["Christmas",
"mistletoe",
"holly",
"crib",
"reindeer",
"cracker",
"plum pudding",
"mince pie",
"stocking",
"carol singers",
"pantomime horse",
"sleigh",
"poinsettia"]
egA[1]=["Christmas",
"mistletoe\\you kiss under it",
"holly\\you decorate the house with it",
"crib\\it tells the Christmas story",
"reindeer\\they pull Santa's sleigh",
"cracker\\you pull this",
"plum pudding\\it comes after the turkey",
"mince pie\\eaten at Christmas",
"stocking\\you hang it up",
"carol singers\\they sing",
"pantomime horse\\two men in a costume",
"sleigh\\Santa rides in it",
"poinsettia\\red leafed plant"]
egA[2]=["Mammals list",
"fox",
"mouse",
"rabbit",
"otter",
"wolf",
"bat",
"hare",
"badger",
"bear",
"lynx",
"rat",
"seal",
"hedgehog",
"deer",
"squirrel",
"beaver"]
egA[3]=["European mammals",
"fox\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Lis_%28Vulpes_vulpes%29_WOB.JPG/120px-Lis_%28Vulpes_vulpes%29_WOB.JPG",
"mouse\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%8C_2.jpg/250px-%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%8C_2.jpg",
"rabbit\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Rabbit_in_montana.jpg/250px-Rabbit_in_montana.jpg",
"otter\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Otter_in_Southwold.jpg/200px-Otter_in_Southwold.jpg",
"wolf\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.jpg/220px-Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.jpg","bat\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg/240px-Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg",
"hare\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Feldhase.jpg/220px-Feldhase.jpg",
"badger\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Badger-badger.jpg/250px-Badger-badger.jpg",
"bear\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Brown_bear.jpg/250px-Brown_bear.jpg",
"lynx\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Lynx_lynx-2.JPG/220px-Lynx_lynx-2.JPG",
"rat\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Street-rat.jpg/220px-Street-rat.jpg",
"seal\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Seehund.jpg/220px-Seehund.jpg",
"hedgehog\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Igel01.jpg/220px-Igel01.jpg",
"deer\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Red_deer_stag_2009_denmark.jpg/250px-Red_deer_stag_2009_denmark.jpg",
"squirrel\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Squirrel_Eating_a_peanut.jpg/200px-Squirrel_Eating_a_peanut.jpg",
"beaver\\http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/American_Beaver.jpg/220px-American_Beaver.jpg"]
egA[4]=["European mammals",
"fox\\///C:/Documents and Settings/Owner/My Documents/image/Fox.JPG",
"mouse\\///C:/Documents and Settings/Owner/My Documents/image/Mouse.jpg",
"otter\\///C:/Documents and Settings/Owner/My Documents/image/Otter.jpg",
"wolf\\///C:/Documents and Settings/Owner/My Documents/image/Wolf.jpg",
"bat\\///C:/Documents and Settings/Owner/My Documents/image/Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg",
"hare\\///C:/Documents and Settings/Owner/My Documents/image/Hare.jpg",
"badger\\///C:/Documents and Settings/Owner/My Documents/image/badger.jpg",
"bear\\///C:/Documents and Settings/Owner/My Documents/image/Brown_bear.jpg",
"lynx\\///C:/Documents and Settings/Owner/My Documents/image/Lynx.JPG",
"rat\\///C:/Documents and Settings/Owner/My Documents/image/Rat.jpg",
"hedgehog\\///C:/Documents and Settings/Owner/My Documents/image/Hedgehog-220px-Igel01.jpg",
"deer\\///C:/Documents and Settings/Owner/My Documents/image/Stag.jpg"]
function loadExample(){
var x=document.getElementById("exampleSelect").selectedIndex
loadUpEg(x-1)
document.getElementById("exampleSelect").selectedIndex=0
}
function loadUpEg(x){
var newA=egA[x]
writeValue("titlearea",newA[0])
var txt=""
for(var c=1;c<newA.length;c++){
txt+=newA[c]
if(c<newA.length-1){
txt+="\n"
}
}
writeValue("pastearea",txt)
}
////////////////////////////////////////
function printDoc(){
var mtxt=document.getElementById("matchtable").innerHTML
var ttxtA=new Array(
'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"',
' "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"><html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">',
'<head>',
'<meta http-equiv="Content-type" content="text/html;charset=ISO-8859-1" />',
'<title>Word shapes</title>',
'<style type="text/css"><!-- ',
'body{margin:auto;}',
' --></style>')
ttxt=ttxtA.join("\n")
var ttxt=ttxt+"</head><body>"+mtxt+"</div></body></html>"
myWindow=window.open()
myWindow.document.write(ttxt)
myWindow.document.close()
}
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
function doRandomTest(){
var txt=document.getElementById("testTextBox").value
var txtA=txt.split("")
var newtxt=randomArraySort(txtA).join("")
document.getElementById("testTextBox").value=newtxt
}
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// -->
</script>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - This is a bit of an experiment and is currently in testing mode</div>
<div class="m10">The program turns words into shapes, depending on the look of the letters. I'd seen this idea on a couple of websites offering stuff for kids, and I thought it might be fun to work something out.</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">You can choose between: </div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="normal">Word shape only (could be used with separate picture or definition cards)</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Anagrams inline with word shapes</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Words shown randomised in a box above word shapes</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Pictures randomised in a box above word shapes</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Word shapes with definitions</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Pictures + anagrams + word shapes</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Pictures inline with word shapes</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Picture credits</span> - for the example I've used images from Wikipedia - to see the credits (with links to the media files - with full-size versions and links to their authors) click on <a href="javascript:toggle(1)"><span id="displayText1">Show</span> credits</a></div>
<div class="m10" id="toggleText1" style="display:none;">
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lis_%28Vulpes_vulpes%29_WOB.JPG">fox</a> - Pawel Ryszawa</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%8C_2.jpg">mouse</a> - George Shuklin</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rabbit_in_montana.jpg">rabbit</a> - Larry D. Moore</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Otter_in_Southwold.jpg">otter</a> - Catherine Trigg</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.jpg">wolf</a> - Daniel Mott</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg">bat</a> - US govt</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Feldhase.jpg">hare</a> - Fmickan</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Badger-badger.jpg">badger</a> - BadgerHero</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brown_bear.jpg">bear</a> - Marshmallow</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lynx_lynx-2.JPG">lynx</a> - David Castor</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Street-rat.jpg">rat</a> - Edal Anton Lefterov</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seehund.jpg">seal</a> - Marcel Burkhard</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Igel01.jpg">hedgehog</a> - Olaf1541</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_deer_stag_2009_denmark.jpg">red deer</a> - Bill Ebbesen</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Squirrel_Eating_a_peanut.jpg">squirrel</a> - Mariappan Jawaharlal</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:American_Beaver.jpg">beaver</a> - Steve at American Beaver</li>
</ul></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Title Entry Box:</span> <br><textarea name="titlearea" id="titlearea" rows="2" cols="70"></textarea></form></div>
<div class="m10"><form><span class="instr">Main Entry Box:</span>
<br><textarea name="pastearea" id="pastearea" rows="15" cols="70"></textarea></form></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Examples</span> <select id="exampleSelect" onchange="loadExample()">
<option>Select example</option>
<option>Christmas words</option>
<option>Christmas words + definitions</option>
<option>British mammals</option>
<option>British mammals with pictures (URLs)</option>
</select></div>
<h4 class="instr">Instructions</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="normal">List words in the box above, each on a separate line - </span><input type="button" class="instr" value="EG" onclick="loadUpEg(0)"/></li>
<li><span class="normal">To add definitions, add a backslash (\) and then add the definition - </span><input type="button" class="instr" value="EG" onclick="loadUpEg(1)"/></li>
<li><span class="normal">To add pictures, add a backslash (\) and then the picture details* - </span><input type="button" class="instr" value="EG" onclick="loadUpEg(3)"/></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">* for the moment picture details can only be a URL. Images might not work in IE8.<br />
</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note 1</span> - it might look a bit cramped on this blog, but should look fine when you open it in a new tab</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note 2</span> - you'll get rather strange results if you've loaded definitions and choose pictures, and vice versa.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Font:</span> <select class="fselect" name="fontselect" id="fontselect" title="Selects font for the main bodytext" onchange="doWordShape()"><option selected="selected">Arial</option><option>Times</option><option selected="selected">Verdana</option><option>Comic</option><option>Georgia</option></select>
<span class="instr">Border</span> <input class="checkbox" title="Check this to have a border for the whole worksheet" id="borderCheck" checked="yes" onclick="doWordShape()" type="checkbox">
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<div class="m10">
<select class="select" id="wsStyleSelect" title="Selects style of worksheet" onchange="doWordShape()">
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<option>Anagrams</option>
<option>Show words</option>
<option>Show pictures</option>
<option>Show definitions</option>
<option>Anagrams + pictures</option>
<option>Pictures inline</option>
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<input class="clue" title="Open the wokshet in a new tab" onclick="printDoc()" value="Open in new tab" type="button">
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</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<div id='introdiv'></div>
<div id='matchtable' style='margin:20px 0;'><span class="instr"><center>Your exercise will appear here</center></span></div>
</div>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-71953343653216673822014-10-19T13:46:00.000+02:002016-10-26T18:17:22.315+02:00Fronting exercises (with a bit of subject-verb inversion)<style type="text/css">
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ansA[2]=["Jane Austen's best-known novel is Pride and Prejudice","Also in the cast were Peter Hedley and Janet Johnson","One thing you should take into consideration is its size","A particularly useful tool to take with you is a Swiss army knife","The frontrunner from start to finish in this contest has been Pat Smith","and a very useful gadget it is","Another place worth considering for your holidays is Mauritius","And this year's winner of the literature prize is David Thomson","In the lead from start to finish has been Jumping Jack Flash","Also in line for promotion is Peter Jackson"]
ansA[3]=["To have left it so late was a big mistake","Why she did it is a bit of a mystery","How the cows got out of the field is not known","That he should say such a thing is difficult to believe","What happened next is common knowledge","That this should have happened at all is unfortunate"]
ansA[4]=["Among the trees was a small cottage","On the bed lay a small child","Through the gate wandered some cows","Across the road a man was mowing the grass","Up the stairs he ran","Into the room burst three men","Above the fireplace hung a portrait of a man","At the desk sat a fierce looking young woman","On the table someone had placed some flowers","In the distance could be seen a group of riders","Out of the car stepped a rather large man","Out of a side street a car shot dangerously","High in the sky flew a large red kite","Along the valley floor ran a small river","Round the corner marched a group of soldiers"]
ansA[5]=["Grazing in the field were some cows","Uprooted by the storm were several trees","Blocking the road was a large tree","Occupying most of one wall was a large sofa","Situated at the end of a broad avenue was a baroque fountain","Set back from the road was a picturesque old cottage","Long gone are the days when holidaymakers flocked to Blackpool","Walking slowly up the hill was an old man carrying a rucksack","Leading the race is Black Beauty"]
ansA[6]=["Better still was the second act","even more interesting is its history","Nicest of all was the way they welcomed us","Just as good at chess as Samantha is her younger brother","By far the youngest competitor was Jenny Brown","Even more fortunate was my cousin","not so tasty was the dessert","Definitely worth a look is the science museum","Rather less exciting was the rest of the book","Also worth a visit is the fourteenth century parish church","Particularly impressive is the novel use of horns in the second movement","Equally as good as anything he has written before is his latest book"]
ansA[7]=[1,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,0,0]
ansA[8]=["First was a debate about unemployment","Then followed a heated discussion","Finally came the key speech of the conference","Next is a documentary about sharks","After that comes the first episode","later than originally scheduled will be a look"]
ansA[9]=["This sort of behaviour I'm just not prepared to accept","Where she could have got to I can't think","To try and lose weight she's taken up jogging","What spare money he has he gives to charity","A week he does not consider a particularly long time to wait","The problems with this method I'll be talking about at some length","Whether the work will be finished on time they didn't say","The train set he got from his aunt","People being rude like that I really can't stand","To perfect his skills he's gone on a special course"]
ansA[10]=["Badly shaken though he was","Talented she may be","but comfortable it was not","Hard though he tried","Highly qualified she may be","Expensive his education undoubtedly was"]
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<div class="exDiv"><div class="m10">These ten exercises are intended to give students some pretty intensive practice in fronting. They cover the more common forms of fronting, and include basic instructions on how it is done. For more detail on how they are formed and why we use fronting you could have a look at my post on '<em>Exploring Inversion and fronting</em>' (link at the bottom).</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The basics</h3>
<div class="m10">Fronting means putting at the beginning of the sentence something that usually comes later. This is usually done for emphasis or special effect, or sometimes to link to something that has gone before. Elements that are fronted include:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">Prepositional phrases</span><br />
<span class="ft">At the back of the room</span> stood a few couples,chatting<br />
<span class="nml">Normal sentence order:</span> A few couples stood at the back of the room chatting. </li>
<li><span class="nml">Comparative adjectives</span><br />
The salmon was good, but <span class="ft">even better</span> was the dessert that followed it.<br />
<span class="nml">Normal sentence order:</span> The dessert that followed it was even better. </li>
<li><span class="nml">Objects</span><br />
He bought a whisky and a beer. <span class="ft">The whisky</span> he downed immediately.<br />
<span class="nml">Normal sentence order:</span> He downed the whisky immediately.</li>
<li><span class="nml">Noun clauses (<span class="bQ">wh-</span>clauses, <span class="bQ">that</span> clauses,infinitive clauses)</span><br />
<span class="ft">That she had been swimming</span> was obvious.<br />
<span class="nml">Normal sentence order:</span> It was obvious that she had been swimming.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">There are quite a few other elements that can also be fronted, as we shall see in the following exercises.</div>
<h4>Fronting and inversion</h4>
<div class="m10">Those first two examples include subject-verb inversion, whereas the second two don't, so we can divide fronting into those forms where inversion is usual, and those where there is no inversion.</div>
<div class="m10">Some subject-auxilary inversion also involves fronting, such as inversion with fronted negative adverbials. But I think this is better treated as inversion, and I haven't included any exercises with subject-auxiliary inversion here - there are links to some at the end of this post.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv7" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>An introduction to fronting - a rather extreme example</h3>
<div class="m10">The following little passage has twenty examples of fronting, some involving inversion, some not. You might find it a bit difficult first time. But it should be a lot easier after you've dont the other exercises. See how many you can spot<span class="noprint"> and then look at my comments below</span>.</div>
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 1</td><td>Underline the elements you think have been fronted<span class="noprint">, by clicking on them (elements will go red when moused over)</span>. Then decide how many involve subject-verb inversion.</td></tr>
</table>
<em>
<div class='m10'><span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part0" title="ex7part0"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,0)">Slowly</a></span>, <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part1" title="ex7part1"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,1)">he</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part2" title="ex7part2"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,2)">walked</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part3" title="ex7part3"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,3)">into the room</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part4" title="ex7part4"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,4)">Occupying almost the whole of one wall</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part5" title="ex7part5"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,5)">was</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part6" title="ex7part6"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,6)">an enormous fireplace</a></span> and <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part7" title="ex7part7"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,7)">in front of the fire</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part8" title="ex7part8"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,8)">lay</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part9" title="ex7part9"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,9)">an equally enormous dog</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part10" title="ex7part10"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,10)">A cat</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part11" title="ex7part11"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,11)">was sleeping peacefully</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part12" title="ex7part12"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,12)">next to the dog</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part13" title="ex7part13"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,13)">In the middle of the room</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part14" title="ex7part14"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,14)">was</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part15" title="ex7part15"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,15)">a table</a></span>, and <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part16" title="ex7part16"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,16)">lying on the table</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part17" title="ex7part17"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,17)">were</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part18" title="ex7part18"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,18)">two letters</a></span>, <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part19" title="ex7part19"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,19)">clearly addressed to him</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part20" title="ex7part20"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,20)">He</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part21" title="ex7part21"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,21)">opened</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part22" title="ex7part22"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,22)">one of them</a></span>, <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part23" title="ex7part23"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,23)">glanced at it quickly</a></span> and <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part24" title="ex7part24"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,24)">threw it on the fire</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part25" title="ex7part25"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,25)">The second</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part26" title="ex7part26"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,26)">he</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part27" title="ex7part27"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,27)">read more carefully</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part28" title="ex7part28"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,28)">before putting it</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part29" title="ex7part29"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,29)">into his pocket</a></span>.</div>
<div class='m10'><span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part30" title="ex7part30"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,30)">At that moment</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part31" title="ex7part31"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,31)">the door</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part32" title="ex7part32"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,32)">opened</a></span> and <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part33" title="ex7part33"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,33)">there</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part34" title="ex7part34"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,34)">stood</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part35" title="ex7part35"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,35)">Fiona</a></span>, <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part36" title="ex7part36"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,36)">his ex-wife</a></span>, <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part37" title="ex7part37"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,37)">which</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part38" title="ex7part38"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,38)">was</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part39" title="ex7part39"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,39)">something of a surprise</a></span>, <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part40" title="ex7part40"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,40)">to put it mildly</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part41" title="ex7part41"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,41)">How she had got into the house</a></span>, <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part42" title="ex7part42"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,42)">he had no idea</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part43" title="ex7part43"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,43)">That she was even in Britain</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part44" title="ex7part44"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,44)">came</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part45" title="ex7part45"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,45)">as a bit of a shock</a></span>; <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part46" title="ex7part46"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,46)">he</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part47" title="ex7part47"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,47)">had thought</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part48" title="ex7part48"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,48)">her</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part49" title="ex7part49"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,49)">to be in Paris</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part50" title="ex7part50"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,50)">She</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part51" title="ex7part51"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,51)">was</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part52" title="ex7part52"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,52)">a clothes designer</a></span>, and <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part53" title="ex7part53"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,53)">to further her career in the fashion world</a></span>, <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part54" title="ex7part54"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,54)">she</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part55" title="ex7part55"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,55)">had moved</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part56" title="ex7part56"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,56)">there some time before</a></span>. And <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part57" title="ex7part57"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,57)">further her career</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part58" title="ex7part58"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,58)">she</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part59" title="ex7part59"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,59)">had certainly done</a></span>; <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part60" title="ex7part60"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,60)">these days</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part61" title="ex7part61"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,61)">he</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part62" title="ex7part62"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,62)">could hardly open a paper</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part63" title="ex7part63"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,63)">without seeing her name</a></span>.</div>
<div class='m10'>But <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part64" title="ex7part64"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,64)">to see her acting as if she owned the place</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part65" title="ex7part65"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,65)">didn’t really surprise</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part66" title="ex7part66"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,66)">him</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part67" title="ex7part67"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,67)">For her</a></span>, <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part68" title="ex7part68"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,68)">it was typical</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part69" title="ex7part69"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,69)">Much more surprising</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part70" title="ex7part70"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,70)">was</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part71" title="ex7part71"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,71)">the way she was dressed</a></span><span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part72" title="ex7part72"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,72)"> - in a smart business two-piece suit</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part73" title="ex7part73"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,73)">He</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part74" title="ex7part74"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,74)">couldn't remember</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part75" title="ex7part75"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,75)">ever having seen her</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part76" title="ex7part76"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,76)">in a suit before</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part77" title="ex7part77"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,77)">Particularly impressive</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part78" title="ex7part78"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,78)">was</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part79" title="ex7part79"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,79)">the slim leather briefcase</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part80" title="ex7part80"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,80)">she</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part81" title="ex7part81"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,81)">held</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part82" title="ex7part82"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,82)">in her gloved hand</a></span>. <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part83" title="ex7part83"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,83)">Not quite so reassuring</a></span>, however, <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part84" title="ex7part84"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,84)">was</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part85" title="ex7part85"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,85)">the gigantic suitcase</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part86" title="ex7part86"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,86)">she</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part87" title="ex7part87"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,87)">was towing</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part88" title="ex7part88"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,88)">behind her</a></span>; <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part89" title="ex7part89"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,89)">a flying visit</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part90" title="ex7part90"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,90)">this</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part91" title="ex7part91"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,91)">was obviously not</a></span>. But, <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part92" title="ex7part92"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,92)">strange</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part93" title="ex7part93"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,93)">though it sounds</a></span>, <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part94" title="ex7part94"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,94)">he</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part95" title="ex7part95"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,95)">was</a></span> <span class="optionPart" style="text-decoration:none;"id="ex7part96" title="ex7part96"><a href="javascript:markWord(7,96)">really rather pleased to see her</a></span>. </div>
</em>
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10"><a href="javascript:toggle(1)"><span id="displayText1">Show</span> my comments and explanations</a></div>
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<div class="m10">There are eight instances of <span class="ft">fronting</span> with <span class="hl">subject</span>-<span class="lw">verb</span> inversion, and twelve of <span class="ft">fronting</span> without inversion.</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="nml">(1)</span> <span class="ft">Slowly</span>, he walked into the room. <span class="nml">(2)</span> <span class="ft">Occupying almost the whole of one wall</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">an enormous fireplace</span> and <span class="nml">(3)</span> <span class="ft">in front of the fire</span> <span class="lw">lay</span> <span class="hl">an equally enormous dog</span>. A cat was sleeping peacefully next to the dog. <span class="nml">(4)</span> <span class="ft">In the middle of the room</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a table</span>, and <span class="nml">(5)</span> <span class="ft">lying on the table</span> <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">two letters</span>, clearly addressed to him. He opened one of them, glanced at it quickly and threw it on the fire. <span class="nml">(6)</span> <span class="ft">The second</span> he read more carefully before putting it into his pocket.</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="nml">(7)</span> <span class="ft">At that moment</span> the door opened and <span class="nml">(8)</span> <span class="ft">there</span> <span class="lw">stood</span> <span class="hl">Fiona, his ex-wife</span>, which was something of a surprise, to put it mildly. <span class="nml">(9)</span> <span class="ft">How she had got into the house</span>, he had no idea. <span class="nml">(10)</span> <span class="ft">That she was even in Britain</span> came as a bit of a shock; he had thought her to be in Paris. She was a clothes designer, and <span class="nml">(11)</span> <span class="ft">to further her career in the fashion world</span>, she had moved there some time before. <span class="nml">(12)</span> <span class="ft">And further her career</span> she had certainly done; <span class="nml">(13)</span> <span class="ft">these days</span> he could hardly open a paper without seeing her name.</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="nml">(14)</span> <span class="ft">To see her acting as if she owned the place</span> didn’t really surprise him. <span class="nml">(15)</span> <span class="ft">For her</span>, it was typical. <span class="nml">(16)</span> <span class="ft">Much more surprising</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the way she was dressed</span> - in a smart business two-piece suit. He couldn't remember ever having seen her in a suit before. <span class="nml">(17)</span> <span class="ft">Particularly striking</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the slim leather briefcase she held in her gloved hand</span>. <span class="nml">(18)</span> <span class="ft">Not so quite so reassuring, however, </span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the amount of luggage she was carrying</span>; <span class="nml">(19)</span> <span class="ft">a flying visit</span> this obviously was not! <span class="nml">(20)</span> But, <span class="ft">strange</span> though it sounds, he was really rather pleased to see her.</div>
<h4>With subject-verb inversion (8)</h4>
<ul class="instr">
<li><span class="nml">Fronted participles - 2, 5</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted prepositional phrases of place - 3, 4</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted adverbial <span class="bQ">there</span> - 8</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted adjectives - 16 (comparative), 17 (<span class="bQ">particularly</span> + adj), 18 (<span class="bQ">not so</span> + adj)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>Without inversion (12)</h4>
<ul class="instr">
<li><span class="nml">Fronted adverb of manner - 1</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted object (noun phrase) - 6, 19</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted adverbial of time - 7</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted <span class="bQ">wh-</span> clause - 9</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted noun clause (without preparatory <span class="bQ">it</span>) - 10 (<span class="bQ">that</span>), 14 (infinitive)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted infinitive of purpose - 11</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted echo verb - 12</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted adverbial of time - 13</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted adjective complement (prepositional phrase) 15</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted adjective + concessive <span class="bQ">though</span> - 20</span></li>
</ul>
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<h3>An important note about the exercises</h3>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Use capital letters where necessary</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Don't use any punctuation</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Answers</span> - At the bottom of the post you will find a row of answer buttons. If you have problems, click on the appropriate button and return to the exercise. But try and answer all the questions in each exercise first; I've deliberately put the answers at the end so it's not so tempting to 'cheat'.</div>
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<h3>Common examples of fronting with <em>here, there, up, down</em> etc</h3>
<div class="m10">Fronting with <span class="bQ">here</span> and <span class="bQ">there</span> is often used in an informal style. Fronting with simple adverbs like <span class="bQ">up, down, off</span> and <span class="bQ">away</span> is especially used when talking to children.</div>
<div class="m10">Fronting with simple adverbs is also used in songs and nursery rhymes. Here's a verse from the famous Australian traditional song <em>Waltzing Matilda</em>:</div>
<div class="bQ" style="margin:10px 0 20px 30px;"><span class="ft">Down</span> <span class="lw">came</span> <span class="hl">a jumbuck</span> to drink at that billabong.<br />
<span class="ft">Up</span> <span class="lw">jumped</span> <span class="hl">the swagman</span> and grabbed him with glee.<br />
And he sang as he shoved that jumbuck in his tucker bag:<br />
"You'll come a-waltzing Matilda, with me."</div>
<h4>Glossary (adapted from Wikipedia)</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>jumbuck<span class="nml"> - a sheep</span></li>
<li>billabong<span class="nml"> - a small area of water found alongside a meandering river.</span></li>
<li>swagman<span class="nml"> - a man who travelled the country looking for work.</span></li>
<li>glee<span class="nml"> - joy, happiness</span></li>
<li>tucker bag<span class="nml"> - a bag to carry food (tucker) in</span></li>
<li>Waltzing Matilda<span class="nml"> - travelling the country looking for work</span></li>
</ul>
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<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 2</td><td>Use your intuition to complete the sentences, using the words given below each sentence. Start with an adverb and invert where possible (about half of the questions).</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>Look! <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,0)" style="width:150px;" type="text">, now<br><em>comes here she</em></td><td id="ex1TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex1gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,1)" style="width:150px;" type="text">, "Miss! Miss! I know the answer".<br>hand up went his</td><td id="ex1TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>Hurry up! <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,2)" style="width:150px;" type="text">.<br><em>comes here bus our</em></td><td id="ex1TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex1gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,3)" style="width:150px;" type="text">, children, it's time for school.<br><em>go off you</em></td><td id="ex1TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex1gap4" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,4)" style="width:150px;" type="text">, try this.<br><em>go you there</em> </td><td id="ex1TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>You let go of the balloon, and <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap5" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,5)" style="width:150px;" type="text">.<br><em>goes it away</em></td><td id="ex1TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex1gap6" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,6)" style="width:150px;" type="text">, one white coffee. <br><em>you are here</em></td><td id="ex1TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>Right children, <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap7" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,7)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> to bed.<br><em>off go you</em></td><td id="ex1TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>Look! <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap8" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,8)" style="width:200px;" type="text">, over there.<br><em>friends are there my</em></td><td id="ex1TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>Bad sales results again, so <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap9" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,9)" style="width:150px;" type="text">, I'm afraid.<br><em>our there bonus goes</em></td><td id="ex1TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">11. </td><td>Down came the rain and <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap10" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,10)" style="width:200px;" type="text">.<br><em>the up umbrellas went</em></td><td id="ex1TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">12. </td><td>So, <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap11" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,11)" style="width:150px;" type="text">, lost in the middle of the forest.<br/><em>were there we</em></td><td id="ex1TickBox11"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">13. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex1gap12" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,12)" style="width:150px;" type="text">, who sat down beside her.<br><em>came spider along a</em><br />
(Nursery rhyme - <em>Little Miss Muffet</em>)</td><td id="ex1TickBox12"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">14. </td><td>In another moment <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap13" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,13)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> after it (the White Rabbit).<br><em>Alice went down</em><br />
(Lewis Carroll, <em>Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</em>) </td><td id="ex1TickBox13"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">15. </td><td>When <input class="textBox" id="ex1gap14" onkeyup="instantCheck(1,14)" style="width:150px;" type="text"> from France, who invited me to her house.<br><em>this girl comes up</em><br />Bob (Song by Bb Dylan - <em>Dylan's 115th Dream</em>)</td><td id="ex1TickBox14"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(1)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(1)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(1)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea1"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10"><a href="javascript:toggle(2)"><span id="displayText2">Show</span> my comments</a></div>
<div id="toggleText2" class="toggle">
<div class="m10">Notice the difference:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="ft">Here</span> <span class="lw">comes</span> <span class="hl">the bus</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">Here</span> <span class="hl">she</span> <span class="lw">comes</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">So we can see that:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">When the subject is a noun, we invert<br />
(2,3,9,10,11,13,14,15)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">When the subject is a pronoun we don't invert<br />
(1,4,5,6,7,8,12)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Subject-whole verb inversion can usually only happen with nouns, not with pronouns.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Fronting combined with subject-verb inversion</h3>
<div class="m10">More common forms of fronting with subject-verb inversion include:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">Fronting adverbial expressions of place, direction and time</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Comparing with what's gone before - adjectives</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronting participles</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronting subject complements - noun phrases</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Fronting adverbial expressions of place, direction and time</h3>
<div class="m10">You could perhaps try the exercise, using your intuition, before you look at the principles. Or you may prefer to look at the principles first - <a href="javascript:toggle(4)"><span id="displayText4">Show</span> the principles</a></div>
<div id="toggleText4" class="toggle">
<div class="m10">In a narrative style we can front adverbials expressions of place and direction (usually preposition phrases). Often this involves subject-verb inversion:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">At the end of the road</span> <span class="lw">stood</span> <span class="hl">an old windmill</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Up the hill</span> <span class="lw">came</span> <span class="hl">a group of hikers</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">There are a few contexts where we can't or don't usually invert with verbs of position or movement:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">with pronouns</span><br />
<span class="ft">At the end of the road</span> he stood, looking at the windmill.<br />
<span class="ft">Up the hill</span> they came, more and more of them.
</li>
<li><span class="nml">when an intransitive verb is followed by an adverb of manner</span><br />
<span class="ft">At the back of the hall</span>, a young girl stood silently holding a candle<br />
<span class="ft">Along the road</span> the old man trudged wearily.</li>
<li><span class="nml">with continuous tenses</span><br />
<span class="ft">In the corridor</span>, some boys were standing talking.</li>
<li><span class="nml">with transitive verbs</span><br />
<span class="ft">On the table</span> the old woman had placed a lace tablecloth.<br />
<span class="ft">Up the hill</span> a man was pushing a wheelbarrow.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">And we don't usually invert with verbs not expressiong position or movement:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">In the other room</span> Sheila picked up the phone.<br />
<span class="ft">On the floor</span> the children played with their toys.
</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But we can use inversion in some passives</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">On the table</span> <span class="lw">had been placed</span> <span class="hl">an old tablecloth</span><br />
<span class="ft">At the end of the road</span> <span class="lw">could be seen</span> <span class="hl">an old windmill</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv4" style="page-break-before:always;">
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 3</td><td>Rearrange the words in italics to make or complete the sentences, starting with a prepositional phrase, as in the example. Invert where possible (which is in the majority of cases)</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">EG. </td><td><em>the table small bed beside a stood</em><br><span class="textBox" style="padding:2px 120px 2px 5px;" type="text"><span class="bQ">Beside the bed stood a small table.</span></span></td><td class="tb" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td><em>a small the among cottage was trees</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,0)" id="ex4gap0" style="width:350px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td><em>a child on small the lay bed</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,1)" id="ex4gap1" style="width:350px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td><em>some gate wandered cows the through</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,2)" id="ex4gap2" style="width:350px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td><em>was across road a man grass mowing the th</em>e<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,3)" id="ex4gap3" style="width:350px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td><em>ran the he stairs up</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,4)" id="ex4gap4" style="width:200px;" type="text">, taking them two by two.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td><em>into room men burst the three</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,5)" id="ex4gap5" style="width:250px;" type="text">, wearing identical clothes.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td><em>portrait of fireplace a man the hung a above</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,6)" id="ex4gap6" style="width:350px;" type="text"> in uniform.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td><em>the fierce at young sat woman desk looking a</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,7)" id="ex4gap7" style="width:350px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td><em>the had some placed someone flowers on table</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,8)" id="ex4gap8" style="width:350px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td><em>seen a in could group of the distance riders be</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,9)" id="ex4gap9" style="width:350px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">11. </td><td><em>of the car a man large out rather stepped</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,10)" id="ex4gap10" style="width:350px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">12. </td><td><em>out car side a street of shot a dangerously</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,11)" id="ex4gap11" style="width:350px;" type="text"> into the main road.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox11"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">13. </td><td><em>sky in the kite high flew red a large</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,12)" id="ex4gap12" style="width:350px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox12"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">14. </td><td><em>ran river floor valley along the a small</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,13)" id="ex4gap13" style="width:350px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox13"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">15. </td><td><em>round soldiers a marched the of corner group</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(4,14)" id="ex4gap14" style="width:350px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex4TickBox14"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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</div>
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<div class="m10"><a href="javascript:toggle(3)"><span id="displayText3">Show</span> my comments</a></div>
<div id="toggleText3" class="toggle">
<div class="m10">We don't invert:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">When the verb does not express position or movement, or is in a continuous tense (4)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">When the subject is a pronoun (5)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">With a transitive verb (9) - unless it's in the passive</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">When a verb of position or movement is accompanied by an adverb of manner (12)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv8" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Fronting other adverbial expressions</h3>
<div class="m10">We can also front other adverbials expressions, especially of time and sequence, with <span class="bQ">be</span> or verbs of place or movement (especially <span class="bQ">come</span>). Again, inversion is often used with nouns, but not with pronouns. Expressions include:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>first, then, next, after that, finally</li>
</ul>
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 4</td><td>Rearrange the words in italics to make or complete the sentences, starting with an adverb or adverbial expression. Invert where possible.</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td colspan="2">Today's party political conference news:</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex8gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,0)" style="width:300px;" type="text"> among young people.<br><em>a was unemployment debate first about</em></td><td id="ex8TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex8gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,1)" style="width:300px;" type="text"> concerning a possible wealth tax.<br><em>followed heated discussion a then</em></td><td id="ex8TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex8gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,2)" style="width:350px;" type="text">, given by the prime minister.<br><em>the came finally the key speech conference of</em></td><td id="ex8TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2">And now a look at the rest of the evening's programmes:</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex8gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,3)" style="width:300px;" type="text">.<br><em>sharks a documentary about next is</em></td><td id="ex8TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex8gap4" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,4)" style="width:300px;" type="text"> of our new drama series.<br><em>episode that first comes after the</em></td><td id="ex8TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>And <input class="textBox" id="ex8gap5" onkeyup="instantCheck(8,5)" style="width:350px;" type="text"> at the latest films.<br><em>than scheduled look a originally later be will</em></td><td id="ex8TickBox5"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(8)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(8)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(8)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea8"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv6" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Comparing, contrasting and highlighting with adjectives</h3>
<div class="m10">Comparatives and superlatives, together with other forms of comparison with adjectives, are sometimes fronted before the verb <span class="bQ">be</span>, often to link with something said before:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="ft">Even more surprising</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">his attitude to women</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Best of all</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the trip round the lake</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Particularly recommended</span> <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">the seafood dishes</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Just as surprising</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">his reaction</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Well worth a trip</span> <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">the nearby mountains</span>.</li>
</ul>
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 5</td><td>Rewrite the sentences, putting the adjective expressions to the front, as in the examples above. Don't use any punctuation.</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>The first act was pretty good. The second act was better still.<br>The first act was pretty good. <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,0)"id="ex6gap0" style="width:250px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex6TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>The design of the house is striking, but its history is even more interesting.<br>The design of the house is striking, but <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,1)"id="ex6gap1" style="width:250px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex6TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>The way they welcomed us was nicest of all.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,2)"id="ex6gap2" style="width:450px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex6TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>Her younger brother is just as good at chess as Samantha.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,3)"id="ex6gap3" style="width:450px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex6TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>Jenny Brown was by far the youngest competitor.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,4)"id="ex6gap4" style="width:450px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex6TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>My cousin was even more fortunate, winning second prize.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,5)"id="ex6gap5" style="width:250px;" type="text">, winning second prize.</td><td class="tb" id="ex6TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>The main course was fine, but the dessert was not so tasty.<br>The main course was fine, but <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,6)"id="ex6gap6" style="width:250px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex6TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>The science museum is definitely worth a look.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,7)"id="ex6gap7" style="width:450px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex6TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>The rest of the the book was rather less exciting.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,8)"id="ex6gap8" style="width:450px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex6TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>The fourteenth century parish church is also worth a visit.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,9)"id="ex6gap9" style="width:450px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex6TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">11. </td><td>The novel use of horns in the second movement is particularly impressive.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,10)"id="ex6gap10" style="width:520px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex6TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">12. </td><td>His latest book is equally as good as anything he has written before.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(6,11)"id="ex6gap11" style="width:470px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex6TickBox11"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkGapBoxes(6)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearGapBoxes(6)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printEx(6)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea6"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv5" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Fronting participle clauses</h3>
<div class="m10">We can sometimes front a verb phrase by turning it into a participle and adding the verb <span class="bQ">be</span>, with the original subject coming after <span class="bQ">be</span>. This often happens with prepositonal phrases of place and movement. It is often used to set the scene in narratives, so <span class="bQ">be</span> is usually in past simple.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="normal">Active verbs: <span class="bQ">-ing</span> forms</span><br />
A old man lay in the doorway.<br />
<span class="ft">Lying in the doorway</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">an old man</span>.</li>
<li><span class="normal">Passive verbs: <span class="bQ">-ed</span> forms</span><br />
A large car was parked in the driveway.<br />
<span class="ft">Parked in the driveway</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a large car</span>.</li>
<li><span class="nml">Notice what happens to past perfect passive forms:</span><br />
A heavy chain had been hung across the gateway.<br />
<span class="ft">Hung across the gateway</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a heavy chain</span>.</li>
</ul>
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 6</td><td>Rewrite the sentences fronting with <span class="bQ">-ing</span> or <span class="bQ">-ed</span> participles, as in the examples above.</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>Some cows were grazing in the field.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,0)" id="ex5gap0" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex5TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>Several trees had been uprooted by the storm.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,1)" id="ex5gap1" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex5TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>A large tree blocked the road.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,2)" id="ex5gap2" style="width:450px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex5TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>A large sofa occupied most of one wall.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,3)" id="ex5gap3" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex5TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>There was a baroque fountain situated at the end of a broad avenue.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,4)" id="ex5gap4" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex5TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>A picturesque old cottage was set back from the road.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,5)" id="ex5gap5" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex5TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td> The days when holidaymakers flocked to Blackpool are long gone.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,6)" id="ex5gap6" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex5TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>An old man carrying a rucksack was walking slowly up the hill.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,7)" id="ex5gap7" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex5TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>Black Beauty is leading the race.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(5,8)" id="ex5gap8" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex5TickBox8"></td></tr>
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</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv2" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Fronting subject complements etc</h3>
<div class="m10">We've already seen how some adjective phrases that normally follow <span class="bQ">be</span>, especially comparatives and superlatives, can be fronted. We can do the same with some noun phrases and adverbial expressions. Notice what happens to words like <span class="bQ">also</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>The end of the eighteenth century was a period of great turmoil in Europe.<br />
<span class="ft">A period of great turmoil in Europe</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the end of the eighteenth century</span>.</li>
<li>His latest novel is in the running for the Booker Prize.<br />
<span class="ft">In the running for the Booker Prize</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">his latest novel</span>.</li>
<li>The council's cycle path programme is also under threat.<br />
<span class="ft">Also under threat</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the council's cycle path programme</span>.</li>
</ul>
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 7</td><td>Change the emphasis of these sentences by moving the part after <span class="bQ">be</span> to the front. In one question there is no inversion.</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>Pride and Prejudice is Jane Austen's best-known novel.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex2gap0" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,0)" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>Peter Hedley and Janet Johnson were also in the cast.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex2gap1" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,1)" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>Its size is one thing that you should take into consideration.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex2gap2" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,2)" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>A Swiss army knife is a particularly useful tool to take with you.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex2gap3" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,3)" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>Pat Smith has been the frontrunner from start to finish in this contest.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex2gap4" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,4)" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>This is the gadget I was talking about, and it is a very useful gadget.<br>This is the gadget I was talking about, <input class="textBox" id="ex2gap5" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,5)" style="width:260px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>Mauritius is another place worth considering for your holidays.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex2gap6" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,6)" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>And David Thomson is this year's winner of the literature prize.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex2gap7" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,7)" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>Jumping Jack Flash has been in the lead from start to finish.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex2gap8" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,8)" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>Peter Jackson is also in line for promotion.<br><input class="textBox" id="ex2gap9" onkeyup="instantCheck(2,9)" style="width:500px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex2TickBox9"></td></tr>
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<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Fronting without inversion</h3>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">Fronting objects, <span class="bQ">wh-</span>clauses and infinitives of purpose</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronting noun clauses</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronting adjectives (and adverbs) in concession clauses etc</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv9" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Fronting objects etc</h3>
<div class="m10">For emphatic effect, we sometimes front objects, <span class="bQ">wh-</span>clauses functioning as objects or similar, and infinitives of purpose:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>She was wearing glves and a scarf. She had bought the scarf in the sales.<br />
... <span class="ft">The scarf</span> she had bought in the sales.</li>
<li>I don't know what he wants to do with his life.<br />
<span class="ft">What he wants to do with his life</span> I don't know</li>
<li>He wants to move to a larger firm to gain more experience.<br />
<span class="ft">To gain more experience</span> he wants to move to a larger firm.</li>
</ul>
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 8</td><td>Make these sentences more emphatic by moving an element to the beginning, as in the examples above.</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>I'm just not prepared to accept this sort of behaviour.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,0)" id="ex9gap0" style="width:450px;/" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex9TickBox0"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>I can't think where she could have got to.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,1)" id="ex9gap1" style="width:450px;/" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex9TickBox1" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>She's taken up jogging to try and lose weight.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,2)" id="ex9gap2" style="width:450px;/" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex9TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>He gives what spare money he has to charity.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,3)" id="ex9gap3" style="width:450px;/" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex9TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>He does not consider a week a particularly long time to wait.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,4)" id="ex9gap4" style="width:450px;/" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex9TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>I'll be talking about the problems with this method at some length.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,4)" id="ex9gap5" style="width:470px;/" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex9TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>They didn't say whether the work will be finished on time.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,6)" id="ex9gap6" style="width:450px;/" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex9TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>He got a new bike and a train set. He got the train set from his aunt.<br>He got a new bike and a train set. <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,7)" id="ex9gap7" style="width:250px;/" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex9TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>I really can't stand people being rude like that.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,8)" id="ex9gap8" style="width:450px;/" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex9TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>He's gone on a special course to perfect his skills.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(9,9)" id="ex9gap9" style="width:450px;/" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex9TickBox9"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv3" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Fronting noun clauses</h3>
<div class="m10">Noun clauses - for example <span class="bQ">that</span> clauses and <span class="bQ">to-infinitive</span> clauses usually follow introductory <span class="bQ">it</span>, as do some <span class="bQ">wh-</span> clauses. These are sometimes inverted for emphasis (dropping <span class="bQ">it</span>), especially when there's an element of surprise, disbelief or mystery:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>It's rather surprising that he didn't know about the meeting.<br />
<span class="ft">That he didn't know about the meeting</span> is rather surprising.</li>
<li>It's always been our mission to put a man on Mars.<br />
<span class="ft">To put a man on Mars</span> has always been our ambition.</li>
<li>It's amazing how she always gets it absolutely right.<br />
<span class="ft">How she always gets it absolutely right</span> is amazing.</li>
</ul>
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 9</td><td>Rearrange the words in each question to make one sentence (starting with a noun clause, as in the examples above)</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td><em>have was big to so late a it left mistake</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(3,0)" id="ex3gap0" style="width:400px;" type="text"></td><td class="tb" id="ex3TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td><em>it she why bit did a a of is mystery</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(3,1)" id="ex3gap1" style="width:400px;" type="text"></td><td class="tb" id="ex3TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td><em>the field out is the of known how cows got not</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(3,2)" id="ex3gap2" style="width:400px;" type="text"></td><td class="tb" id="ex3TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td><em>that believe is to say he thing a should such difficult</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(3,3)" id="ex3gap3" style="width:400px;" type="text"></td><td class="tb" id="ex3TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td><em>knowledge common happened next what is</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(3,4)" id="ex3gap4" style="width:400px;" type="text"></td><td class="tb" id="ex3TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td><em>should that happened all at this have unfortunate is</em><br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(3,5)" id="ex3gap5" style="width:400px;" type="text"></td><td class="tb" id="ex3TickBox5"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv10" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Fronting with concession and contrast</h3>
<div class="m10">We can sometimes front an adjective (or adjective phrase) or adverb in concession clauses with <span class="bQ">though</span> (but not <span class="bQ">although</span> or <span class="bQ">even though</span>).</div>
<div class="m10">We can do the same with some other clauses involving concession (especially with <span class="bQ">may, certainly, undoubtedly</span>), followed by <span class="bQ">but</span>. Look at these patterns:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Although she is good at chess, her brother occasionally beats her.<br />
<span class="ft">Good at chess</span> though she is, her brother occasionally beats her.</li>
<li>Even though he ran fast, he just couldn't keep up with the others.<br />
<span class="ft">Fast</span> though he ran, he just couldn't keep up with the others.</li>
<li>They may be bigger, but are they better?<br />
<span class="ft">Bigger</span> they may be, but are they better?</li>
<li>It's undoubtedly well-made, but does it what we want it to do.<br />
<span class="ft">Well-made</span> it undoubtedly is, but does it what we want it to do.</li>
</ul>
<table class="eHdr">
<tr><td class="eHdr1">Exercise 10</td><td>Make these sentences more emphatic by moving an adjective or adverb to the beginning, and making any other necessary changes, as in the examples above.</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>Though he was badly shaken he managed to help the others to safety.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(10,0)" id="ex10gap0" style="width:225px;" type="text">, he managed to help the others to safety</td><td class="tb" id="ex10TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>She may be talented, but that doesn't excuse her behaviour.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(10,1)" id="ex10gap1" style="width:200px;" type="text">, but that doesn't excuse her behaviour.</td><td class="tb" id="ex10TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>The journey was certainly fast, but it was not comfortable.<br>Fast the journey certainly was, <input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(10,2)" id="ex10gap2" style="width:200px;" type="text">.</td><td class="tb" id="ex10TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>Though he tried hard, he just couldn't reach the shelf.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(10,3)" id="ex10gap3" style="width:200px;" type="text">, he just couldn't reach the shelf.</td><td class="tb" id="ex10TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>She may be highly qualified, but she's rather lacking in experience.<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(10,4)" id="ex10gap4" style="width:225px;" type="text">, but she's rather lacking in experience.</td><td class="tb" id="ex10TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>His education was undoubtedly expensive, but did it really benefit him?<br><input class="textBox" onkeyup="instantCheck(10,5)" id="ex10gap5" style="width:300px;/" type="text">, but did it really benefit him?</td><td class="tb" id="ex10TickBox5"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Other examples of fronting</h3>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">Fronting a verb which echoes a previously mentioned verb</span><br />
He promised to finish it on time, and <span class="ft">finish it on time</span> he did.<br />
She said she'd beat the record, and <span class="ft">beat it</span> she has.</li>
<li><span class="nml">Detached fronted verb phrases (informal)</span><br />
<span class="ft">Makes a nice tiramasu</span>, your mum.<br />
<span class="ft">Talks a lot</span>, that girl.</li>
<li><span class="nml">Detached fronted subjects and objects, echoed with pronouns (informal)</span><br />
<span class="ft">That friend of yours</span>, he's just crashed into your car!<br />
<span class="ft">That book you were talking about</span>, I've just bought it.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Answers</h3>
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<h3>Related posts - inversion, fronting and other forms of emphasis</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2014/09/exploring-inversion-and-fronting.html">Exploring inversion and fronting</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/01/making-sense-of-negative-inversion.html">Making sense of negative inversion, hopefully</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/05/negative-inversion-practice-exercises.html">Negative inversion - practice exercises</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2013/01/inversion-in-conditionals.html">Inversion in conditionals</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/10/tag-questions-and-short-answers.html">Tag questions and short answers</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2012/04/emphasis-focussing-with-cleft-sentences.html">Focussing with cleft sentences</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2012/04/emphatic-do-does-did-and-other.html">Emphatic <span class="bQ">do, does, did</span> and other auxiliaries</a></li>
</ul>
<h3>Links</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waltzing_Matilda">Waltzing Matilda (Wikpedia)</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Miss_Muffet">Little Miss Muffet</a></li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-21939905942988204622014-10-04T18:51:00.000+02:002014-10-04T18:51:37.545+02:00Random thoughts on assist in or assist with?<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">A questioner at the language forum '<em>Pain in the English</em>' asked, which is correct?</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>Assists attorney in drafting documentation.</li>
<li>Assists attorney with drafting documentation.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">The few people that commented seemed to agree that the first was correct, and there was one suggestion that <span class="bQ">'assist in'</span> is followed by a verb, whereas <span class="bQ">'assist with'</span> is followed by a noun. </div>
<div class="m10">Both <span class="bQ">in</span> and <span class="bQ">with</span> are prepositions, so the only verb form that can follow either of them is a gerund, which is in fact a verbal noun, and there doesn't seem to be any grammatical reason that I can think of why a gerund can't follow <span class="bQ">'assist with'</span>, nor any reason why a standard noun can't follow <span class="bQ">'assist in'</span>. But perhaps there's an idiomatic one.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>Assist</em> meaning <em>give</em> etc</h3>
<div class="m10">It's true that when we assist someone by giving or using something to help them, then <span class="bQ">assist</span> is always followed by <span class="bQ">with</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>we should assist with money and not men<br />
<span class="nml">British Parliament 1812</span></li>
<li>he was directed to place himself in a situation to be ready to assist with his boats<br />
<span class="nml">British Parliament 1812</span></li>
<li>I will assist with all my power to support the interests'of the Batavian people<br />
<span class="nml">The Annual Register, 1811</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Most examples of this use I've found are quite old, although here is a modern example from the web:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>businesses are called on to assist with specific expertise</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But that's not what this post is about, which is when <span class="bQ">assist in / with</span> means to take part in some process or action, as in the questioner's '<em>drafting documentation</em>'.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Learner's dictionaries</h3>
<div class="m10">Learner's dictionaries are rather better at giving this sort of information (and giving example sentences) than standard dictionaries, and appear to allow both, without specifying whether they should be followed by a gerund or noun. Most of the example sentences given in British dictionaries, however, seem to be with <span class="bQ">'in'</span>, and are followed by nouns rather than gerunds:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>"assist in/with something"<span class="nml"><br />
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary</span><br />
"We are looking for people who would be willing to assist in the group's work."</li>
<li>"assist in/with"<span class="nml"><br />
Macmillan's Dictionary</span><br />
Several top landscape designers assisted in the creation of the garden.</li>
<li>"assist (somebody) with/in something"<span class="nml"><br />
Longman's</span><br />
You will be employed to assist in the development of new equipment.</li>
<li>"assist the police with/in their inquiries (UK)"<span class="nml"><br />
Cambridge Dictionary</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">The American Merriam-Webster's Learner's Dictionary gives these examples:</span><br />
<p>" Another doctor assisted with the operation."<br />
"Federal agents are assisting with the investigation."<br />
"She assisted in making the decision."<br />
"The cream assists in the prevention of skin cancer."</p></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Here, both examples with <span class="bQ">'with'</span> are followed by nouns, whereas the only gerund follows <span class="bQ">in</span>, but we also have an example of a noun following in.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Usage Guides</h3>
<div class="m10">I can find nothing about this in Fowler, either first or third editions. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage says:</div>
<div class="cite4">
When <span class="bQ">'assist'</span> clearly means <span class="bQ">'help'</span>, <span class="bQ">'in'</span> and <span class="bQ">'with'</span> are usual. <span class="bQ">'In'</span> can be used before a noun or a gerund.
</div>
<div class="m10">It's a shame they say nothing more about <span class="bQ">'with'</span>.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>At Ngram</h3>
<div class="m10">
<iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=assist+in+drafting%2Cassist+with+drafting&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cassist%20in%20drafting%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cassist%20with%20drafting%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe>
</div>
<div class="m10">I wondered if there would be any difference if assist was followed an object, but this was even cleares - Ngram had no instances of <span class="bQ">assist</span> + wild card + <span class="bQ">with</span>, only with <span class="bQ">in</span> (although the numbers here are pretty low):</div>
<div class="m10">
<iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=assist+*+in+drafting%2Cassist+*+with+drafting&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t2%3B%2Cassist%20*%20in%20drafting%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Bassist%20him%20in%20drafting%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20them%20in%20drafting%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20you%20in%20drafting%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe>
</div>
<div class="m10">The next graph shows that it's certainly true that the list of the top ten words after <span class="bQ">'with'</span> contains only noun phrases (they are mainly determiners - <span class="bQ">the</span> being by far the most common) and no gerunds. But it's also true that the top ten list for <span class="bQ">'in'</span> includes five noun phrases as well as gerunds, and the two most common collocations with <span class="bQ">'in'</span> are both noun phrases. And that in all cases, <span class="bQ">'in'</span> is well ahead of <span class="bQ">'with'</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">
<iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=assist+in+*%2Cassist+with+*&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t2%3B%2Cassist%20in%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20the%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20this%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20making%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20carrying%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20its%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20their%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20bringing%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20a%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20forming%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20keeping%3B%2Cc0%3B.t2%3B%2Cassist%20with%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20the%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20their%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20his%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20a%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20all%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20this%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20money%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20your%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20her%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20some%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=320 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe>
</div>
<div class="m10">And here are the most common collocations at Ngram with <span class="bQ">'assist in the'</span> and <span class="bQ">'assist with the'</span>:</div>
<div class="bQ"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=assist+in+the+*%2Cassist+with+the+*&year_start=1900&year_end=2008&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t2%3B%2Cassist%20in%20the%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20the%20development%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20the%20work%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20the%20preparation%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20the%20establishment%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20the%20formation%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20the%20process%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20the%20solution%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20the%20maintenance%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20the%20selection%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20the%20construction%3B%2Cc0%3B.t2%3B%2Cassist%20with%20the%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20the%20work%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20the%20development%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20the%20preparation%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20the%20care%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20the%20planning%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20the%20implementation%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20the%20process%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20the%20management%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20the%20design%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20the%20training%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=320 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="m10">Does the word following <span class="bQ">in</span> or <span class="bQ">with</span> make any difference in deciding which to use?</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">The top four words in the <span class="bQ">in</span> list also appear high in the <span class="bQ">with</span> list:</span><br />
development, process, preparation, work</li>
<li><span class="nml">Six words appear only in the <span class="bQ">in</span> list</span><br />
establishment, selection, function, maintenance, construction, solution</li>
<li><span class="nml">Six words appear only in the <span class="bQ">with</span> list</span><br />
management, design, care, training, planning, implementation</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">I don't really think I can see any pattern there, except perhaps for the fact that there are two nouns derived from gerunds (although not themselves gerunds) in the <span class="bQ">with</span> list. But see the section titled '<em>But sometimes there isn't a choice</em>' a little furher down.</div>
<h4>A couple of specific examples</h4>
<div class="m10">One questioner at '<em>Pain in the English</em>' asked which was correct with <span class="bQ">'the project'</span>. Here, for some reason, it's a bit closer:</div>
<div class="m10">
<iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=assist+in+the+project%2Cassist+with+the+project&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cassist%20in%20the%20project%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cassist%20with%20the%20project%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe>
</div>
<div class="m10">I noticed that the expression <span class="bQ">'called on to assist'</span> cropped up quite a bit on the web, (Ngram has a five-word limit, and nearly all the examples of <span class="bQ">'on to assist'</span> at Google Books are of <span class="bQ">'called on to assist'</span>):</div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=on+to+assist+in%2Con+to+assist+with&year_start=1900&year_end=2008&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Con%20to%20assist%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Con%20to%20assist%20with%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="m10">I thought that with the expression <span class="bQ">'asked to assist'</span> we might see more of a swing to 'with', as often this might be something like - <span class="bQ">'you may be asked to assist with the children'</span> or 'you may be asked to assist with lunch' (see below), but <span class="bQ">'in'</span> still has the edge here,as well.</div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=asked+to+assist+in%2Casked+to+assist+with&year_start=1900&year_end=2008&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Casked%20to%20assist%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Casked%20to%20assist%20with%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The British National Corpus</h3>
<div class="m10">Here are instances of various phrases with <span class="bQ">assist</span> at the BNC:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>assist in<span class="nml"> - 541</span></li>
<li>assist with<span class="nml"> - 167</span></li>
<li>assist in the<span class="nml"> - 238</span></li>
<li>assist with the<span class="nml"> - 67</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">While many of those with <span class="bQ">'in'</span> are followed by gerunds, a lot are also followed by standard nouns:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li>"the civil servants he appointed to assist in the work"</li>
<li>"a suggestion from the Ministry of Supply to assist in the production of railway bridges"</li>
<li>"About the only contribution information technology can make is to assist in the compilation of cricket statistics."</li>
<li>"Numerous tests are available to assist in the systematic assessment of a wide range of grammatical abilities"</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Similarly, while the majority of instances of 'assist with' are followed by nouns, there are also quite a few followed by gerunds:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li>"Volunteers are welcome to assist with staffing of the City Varieties"</li>
<li>"one is merely allowed to assist with abseiling a small group down a short drop"</li>
<li>"Guides will assist with the serving of tea or coffee and biscuits"</li>
<li>"a variety of methods have been evolved to assist with coping with them."</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Netspeak</h3>
<div class="m10">Netspeak, a web-based 'corpus', found 30 million examples of <span class="bQ">'assist'</span> on the web: </div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>assist in<span class="nml"> - 4.9 m, 16.3%</span></li>
<li>assist with<span class="nml"> - 2.0 m, 6.7%</span></li>
<li>assist in the<span class="nml"> - 1.5 m, 5.1%</span></li>
<li>assist with the<span class="nml"> - 454,000, 1.5%</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">So while <span class="bQ">assist in</span> is 2.45 times more common than <span class="bQ">assist with</span>, when we add <span class="bQ">the</span>, the difference is even greater - 3.3 times as many. Which rather dicounts any idea that nouns follow <span class="bQ">assist with</span>.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>At Google Books</h3>
<div class="m10">Sometimes both versions occur in the same book - in these examples on the same page:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>This intern will assist with general administrative and clerical duties ... and assist in the closing of the sale.<br />
<span class="nml"><em>The Comprehensive Guide to Careers in Sports</em>, Glenn M. Wong</span></li>
<li>Research with children with learning disabilities and the effectiveness of computer-assisted learning to assist in spelling is inconclusive ... Various software exists to assist with spelling<br />
<span class="nml"><em>Utilising Information Communication Technology to Assist the Education of Individuals with Down Syndrome</em>, by Bob Black, Amanda Wood</span></li>
<li>To assist with development and implementation of a comprehensive and sustainable programme for disarmament ... and to otherwise assist in the training of civilian police.<br />
<span class="nml"><em>Darfur and the Crisis of Governance in Sudan: A Critical Reader</em>, edited by Salah M. Hassan, Carina E. Ray</span></li>
<li>Assist in process and program effectiveness data and analysis for improvement ... Assist with designing of accommodation<br />
<span class="nml"><em>Response to Intervention and Continuous School Improvement</em>, Victoria Bernhardt, Connie Hebert</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Case study - <em>developing</em> and <em>the development</em></h3>
<div class="m10">The top expression in both the <span class="bQ">'in'</span> and <span class="bQ">'with'</span> lists at Ngram was <span class="bQ">'the development'</span>, and <span class="bQ">'developing'</span> figures high in the Netspeak list.</div>
<div class="m10">These are the figures at Netspeak, based on a web corpus:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>assist in developing<span class="nml"> - 89,000, 38.1%</span></li>
<li>assist with developing<span class="nml"> - 6,600, 2.8%</span></li>
<li>assist in the development<span class="nml"> - 166,000, 70.2%</span></li>
<li>assist with the development<span class="nml"> - 31,000, 13.3%</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">At the BNC it's:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>assist in developing<span class="nml"> - 4</span></li>
<li>assist with developing<span class="nml"> - 0</span></li>
<li>assist with the development<span class="nml"> - 21</span></li>
<li>assist with the development<span class="nml"> - 2</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">And here's the picture at Ngram:</div>
<div class="m10">
<iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=assist+in+developing%2Cassist+with+developing&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cassist%20in%20developing%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cassist%20with%20developing%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe>
</div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=assist+in+the+development%2Cassist+with+the+development&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cassist%20in%20the%20development%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cassist%20with%20the%20development%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="m10">It doesn't seem to make much difference whether we use a gerund or a simple noun - <span class="bQ">in</span> wins hands down.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>But sometimes there isn't a choice</h3>
<div class="m10">Looking more closely at examples from the internet made me realise that sometimes the preposition following <span class="bQ">assist</span> is determined more by the word that follows it, rather than by <span class="bQ">assist</span> itself. For example, <span class="bQ">in</span> might be part of an adverbial expression - of time, place or manner, where <span class="bQ">with</span> wouldn't be possible:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>each brigade ... may be called on to assist in a neighbouring area</li>
<li>Eye health workers had come from all over Australia to assist in a week of intensive surgery</li>
<li>Volunteers are available to assist in a variety of ways</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Equally there are times when only <span class="bQ">with</span> will do:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>You may be asked to assist with lunch</li>
<li>Scottish women asked to assist with police crackdown on human trafficking</li>
<li>... the National Guard was called on to assist with rescue efforts.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Apart from particular words like <span class="bQ">lunch</span>, it seems to me that <span class="bQ">with</span> is especially used when the assistance is not part of the subject's normal duties.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Comparison with <em>help</em></h3>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=assist+in%2Cassist+with%2Chelp+in%2Chelp+with&year_start=1900&year_end=2008&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cassist%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cassist%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Chelp%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Chelp%20with%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ"><span class="bQ">help</span> + wildcard + <span class="bQ">in / with</span></span></div>
<div class="m10">
<iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=help+*+in%2Chelp+*+with&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t2%3B%2Chelp%20*%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Bhelp%20him%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20us%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20them%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20you%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20me%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20her%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20is%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20out%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20it%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20those%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B.t2%3B%2Chelp%20*%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Bhelp%20you%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20him%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20me%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20them%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20her%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20us%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20out%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20agreeing%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20sympathizing%20with%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20people%20with%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=320 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe>
</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ"><span class="bQ">help in / with</span> + wildcard</span></div>
<div class="m10">
<iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=help+in+*%2Chelp+with+*&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t2%3B%2Chelp%20in%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Bhelp%20in%20the%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20in%20this%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20in%20a%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20in%20making%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20in%20their%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20in%20understanding%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20in%20his%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20in%20any%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20in%20getting%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20in%20solving%3B%2Cc0%3B.t2%3B%2Chelp%20with%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Bhelp%20with%20the%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20with%20this%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20with%20a%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20with%20their%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20with%20his%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20with%20her%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20with%20your%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20with%20some%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20with%20my%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bhelp%20with%20these%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=320 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Conclusions</h3>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">Both <span class="bQ">'in'</span> and <span class="bQ">'with'</span> are usually possible.</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">When followed by a gerund, <span class="bQ">'in'</span> is by far the most common.</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">But the difference isn't much less when followed by a simple noun - <span class="bQ">'in'</span> is still the clear favourite.</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">The use of <span class="bQ">'with'</span> seems to have been increasing since around the middle of the twentieth century.</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">There are some occasions when only <span class="bQ">'in'</span> is possible, and others when only '<span class="bQ">with'</span> is possible.</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">My own feeling is that the more the process is part of the subject's normal activities, the more we are likely to use <span class="bQ">'in'</span>, and that <span class="bQ">'with'</span> is possibly favoured when the subject is not 'part of the team', and when they are, in effect, helping other people, more than fully participating in something as part of their normal activities.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Links</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=assist+in+*%2Cassist+with+*&year_start=1900&year_end=2008&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t2%3B%2Cassist%20in%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20the%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20this%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20making%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20their%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20its%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20carrying%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20a%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20determining%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20maintaining%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20in%20bringing%3B%2Cc0%3B.t2%3B%2Cassist%20with%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20the%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20this%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20a%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20their%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20his%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20all%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20these%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20your%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20its%3B%2Cc0%3B%3Bassist%20with%20any%3B%2Cc0">Ngram</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/">The British National Corpus</a> - simple search</li>
<li><a href="http://www.netspeak.org/#query=assist+*/">Netspeak.org</a></li>
<li><a href="http://painintheenglish.com/case/434">Pain in the English</a></li>
<li><a href="http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/grammarlogs1/grammarlogs280.htm">CCC.net - forum</a></li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-77946755582985847812014-09-28T13:26:00.000+02:002014-10-26T13:39:03.247+01:00Exploring inversion and fronting<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<h4>Inversion</h4>
<div class="m10">This involves reversing the position of the subject and an auxiliary, or sometimes the subject and the whole verb. You'll be familiar with the idea from question forms and question tags, where we swap or switch (exchange) the subject and auxiliary (including modals), or the verb <span class="bQ">be</span>. You'll also know such inverted expressions as <span class="bQ">'so do I'</span> and <span class="bQ">'neither do I'</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">You probably also know a bit about inversion with negative and limiting adverbials, and that we can sometimes invert conditionals.</div>
<h4>Fronting</h4>
<div class="m10">This means putting a word or expression which normally comes later to the front of the sentence, before the subject. This could be, for example, an adverbial or adjectival expression, a noun phrase or clause, or even a verb.</div>
<h4>The purpose of this post</h4>
<div class="m10">This post is not intended to be an introduction to inversion and fronting, but rather an exploration of all the different patterns of inversion and fronting I can find, with lots of (I hope natural-sounding) examples. If you are specifically looking for information about negative inversion or inverting conditionals, or about question tags and short answers, you might be better looking at one of my other posts, linked to at the bottom of this post.</div>
<h4>Looking for exercises?</h4>
<div class="m10">As this post is already rather long I'm not including any exercises here, but will link instead to other posts with exercises, as and when I've written them. You can find links at the end of this post to exercises on negative inversion, inversion in conditionals, inversion in tag questions and short answers, and fronting (including some subject-verb inversion)</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Introduction</h3>
<h4>Why do we use inversion and fronting?</h4>
<div class="m10">English is quite strict about word order, the standard in positive (declarative) sentences being: Subject - Verb - Object (SVO). When this is changed, we know something special is happening.</div>
<div class="m10">Sometimes, as in forming questions, inversion is obligatory. But at other times it's optional, and like fronting, which is always optional, we usually use it:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">to give extra emphasis to something, either by bringing it to the front, or in some cases by putting at the end of a clause</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">as a cohesive device to link a clause or sentence to what has just gone before</span> </li>
<li><span class="nml">to give a more dramatic effect, especially in writing</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>Inversion and fronting</h4>
<div class="m10">Inversion is often used in connection with fronting. Sometimes fronting involves inversion, often it doesn't. Sometimes that inversion is obligatory, sometimes it isn't.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">Fronting of a negative adverb, with obligatory inversion.</span><p>
<span class="hl">He</span> <span class="lw">had</span> never seen such a wonderful sunset. <span class="nml">(standard word order)</span><br />
<span class="ft">Never</span> <span class="lw">had</span> he seen such a wonderful sunset. <span class="nml">(fronted with inversion)</span></p></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronting of a prepositional phrase, with optional inversion</span><p>
<span class="hl">A large dog</span> <span class="lw">lay</span> in front of the fireplace. <span class="nml">(standard word order)</span><br />
<span class="ft">In front of the fireplace</span>, <span class="lw">lay</span> <span class="hl">a large dog. <span class="nml">(fronted with inversion)</span></span><br />
<span class="ft">In front of the fireplace</span>, <span class="hl">a large dog</span> <span class="lw">was chewing</span> a bone. <span class="nml">(fronted, no inversion)</span></p></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronting of <span class="bQ">wh</span>-clause - here inversion is not possible</span><p>
<span class="hl">I</span><span class="lw">'ve</span> no idea why she's late. <span class="nml">(standard word order)</span><br />
<span class="ft">Why she's late</span>, <span class="hl">I</span><span class="lw">'ve</span> no idea. <span class="nml">(fronted, no inversion)</span></p></li>
</ul>
<h4>How much do foreign learners need to know about inversion?</h4>
<ol class="instr">
<li><span class="nml">Apart from question forms and a few expressions like <span class="bQ">so do I / neither do I</span>, inversion is mostly used in formal and narrative texts, so for many learners (and indeed native speakers) it would be quite possible to go through life without ever having to use this type of emphatic inversion.</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">For those doing certificate exams, however, they will be expected to know about negative inversion and inversion in conditionals, and possibly inversion after <span class="bQ">so</span> and <span class="bQ">such</span>.</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">A few forms of inversion, such as <span class="bQ">'here come the children'</span> or <span class="bQ">'there goes our bus'</span> are quite informal and could make your English sound more natural. </span></li>
<li><span class="nml">And if you're going to do any extended writing, some of the structures that use fronting as a cohesive device to follow on from information already given could be useful, for example when making comparisons. But you have to be careful. Stick carefully to the patterns given, and even then, some things work, some don't.</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">A lot of the other inverted and/or fronted structures are formal or literary, and many seem to be being used less and less. They are listed here mainly for interest's sake, and most native speakers use them only rarely if at all.</span></li>
</ol>
<h4>Categorisation in this post</h4>
<div class="m10">Inversion is often divided into two categories, Subject-auxiliary inversion and Subject-verb inversion, and some forms of inversion only happen with the verb <span class="bQ">be</span>. I've taken a slightly different approach and divided this post into seven main sections, although there is a bit of overlap:</div>
<ol class="instr">
<li><span class="nml">Subject-auxiliary inversion - obligatory, no emphasis involved<ul class="lsn">
<li><span class="instr">1.1</span> <span class="nml">Question forms</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">1.2</span> <span class="nml"><span class="bQ">So do I, neither/nor do I</span> etc</span></li>
</ul></li>
<li><span class="nml">Subject-auxiliary inversion - optional, usually for emphasis<ul class="lsn">
<li><span class="instr">2.1</span> Negative inversion with fronted adverbials</li>
<li><span class="instr">2.2</span> Inverting conditionals</li>
<li><span class="instr">2.3</span> <span class="bQ">as</span> + inversion in follow-on clauses/ sentences</li>
<li><span class="instr">2.4</span> <span class="bQ">than</span> + inversion in comparatives</li>
<li><span class="instr">2.5</span> Exclamations</li>
<li><span class="instr">2.6</span> Hopes and wishes starting with <span class="bQ">may</span></li>
</ul></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted so and such<ul class="lsn">
<li><span class="instr">3.1</span> <span class="bQ">S</span>o + adjective + linking verb + <span class="bQ">that</span> clause</li>
<li><span class="instr">3.2</span> <span class="bQ">So</span> + adverb + verb + <span class="bQ">that</span> clause</li>
<li><span class="instr">3.3</span> <span class="bQ">Such</span> + <span class="bQ">be</span> + noun phrase + <span class="bQ">that</span> clause</li>
<li><span class="instr">3.4</span> <span class="bQ">So much / little did ... that ...</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">3.5</span> Using <span class="bQ">such</span> to refer back to something already mentioned</li>
<li><span class="instr">3.6</span> Some expressions with <span class="bQ">so</span> and <span class="bQ">such</span> using inversion</li>
</ul></span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted adverbs and adverbial expressions <ul class="lsn">
<li><span class="instr">4.1</span> <span class="bQ">Here</span> and <span class="bQ">there</span> + <span class="bQ">be, come, go</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">4.2</span> Other common expressions with fronting</li>
<li><span class="instr">4.3</span> Prepositional phrases of place with verbs of position + inversion</li>
<li><span class="instr">4.4</span> Prepositional phrases of direction with verbs of movement + inversion</li>
<li><span class="instr">4.6</span> Prepositional phrases of place and direction with verbs of movement - no inversion</li>
<li><span class="instr">4.7</span> Prepositional phrases of place with other verbs without inversion</li>
<li><span class="instr">4.8</span> Fronting other adverbs and adverbials</li>
</ul></span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Fronted adjectives and participles + inverted <span class="bQ">be</span><ul class="lsn">
<li><span class="instr">5.1</span> Fronting simple adjectives</li>
<li><span class="instr">5.2</span> Fronting comparatives, superlatives and other forms of comparison</li>
<li><span class="instr">5.3</span> Fronted <span class="bQ">not so</span> constructions</li>
<li><span class="instr">5.4</span> Fronted <span class="bQ">worth a look</span> etc</li>
<li><span class="instr">5.5</span> Double comparatives + inversion - the bigger, the better etc</li>
<li><span class="instr">5.6</span> Fronted present and past participles</li>
</ul></span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Other forms of subject-verb inversion<ul class="lsn">
<li><span class="instr">6.1</span> Fronting subject complements (noun phrases)</li>
<li><span class="instr">6.2</span> In direct speech and newspaper headlines</li>
<li><span class="instr">6.3</span> Fronted expressions after <span class="bQ">also</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">6.4</span> Exclamations with <span class="bQ">how</span> and <span class="bQ">what</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">6.5</span> Fronting noun clauses</li>
</ul></span></li>
<li><span class="nml">Other forms pf fronting where inversion doesn't take place<ul class="lsn">
<li><span class="instr">7.1</span> Fronting <span class="bQ">wh-</span> clauses</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.2</span> Fronting infinitives of purpose</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.3</span> Fronting objects</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.4</span> Fronting adjectives + it clauses</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.5</span> Fronting <span class="bQ">as</span> and <span class="bQ">though</span> in clauses of concession</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.6</span> Fronting and echoing a previously mentioned verb</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.7</span> Detached fronted verb phrases</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.8</span> Detached fronted subjects and objects</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.9</span> Introductory phrases <span class="bQ">'the thing is'</span> etc</li>
</ul></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="m10">Because inversion and fronting have to be used rather carefully, I'll be going into rather a lot of detail in this 'exploration', to see what works and what doesn't, what is natural and what isn't. And exploration is what this is, my comments reflecting my understanding rather than any hard and fast rules. </div>
<h4>Colour coding</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml"><span class="ft">fronted expression</span></span></li>
<li><span class="nml"><span class="lw">auxiliary / verb</span></span></li>
<li><span class="nml"><span class="hl">subject</span></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">I've tended not to colour-code the auxiliary / verb and subject when only fronting takes place, without inversion.</div>
</div>
<div class="hdr">
<h2><span>1. Subject-auxiliary inversion -
obligatory, no emphasis involved</span></h2>
<div class="m10">This consists of question forms and <em>so do I, nor/neither do I</em> etc</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>1.1 Question forms</h3>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - Remember that with simple tenses (apart from with the verb <span class="bQ">be</span>) we have to add <span class="bQ">do, does</span> or <span class="bQ">did</span> in questions and negatives:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="hl">We</span> <span class="lw">went</span> to the cinema last night.<br />
Oh. What <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">you</span> see?</li>
<li><span class="hl">Mary and Sam</span> <span class="lw">are</span> leaving now.<br />
<span class="lw">Aren't</span> <span class="hl">they</span> coming with us to the park?</li>
<li><span class="hl">I</span> <span class="lw">'ve</span> bought a present for Sandy.<br />
But <span class="lw">have</span> <span class="hl">you</span> bought one for me?</li>
<li><span class="lw">Can't</span> <span class="hl">you children</span> make a little less noise?<br />
<span class="lw">Would</span> <span class="hl">you</span> hold this for me, please?</li>
<li><span class="lw">Isn't</span> <span class="hl">Samantha</span> pretty, all dressed up like that?<br />
<span class="lw">Are</span> <span class="hl">you two</span> ready yet?</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Subject questions</span> - We don't invert when the question refers to the subject:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="hl">Who</span> gave you those flowers?<br />
<span class="hl">Mark</span> (gave me the flowers).</li>
<li><span class="hl">What</span> <span class="lw">is</span> making so much noise?<br />
<span class="hl">The washing machine</span> (<span class="lw">is</span> making so much noise).</li>
<li><span class="hl">Which of you</span> <span class="lw">has</span> been here before?<br />
<span class="hl">Jenny</span> <span class="lw">has</span> (been here before).</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Indirect questions</span> - We don't invert in indirect (aka embedded) questions:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>He asked me where <span class="hl">I</span> <span class="lw">was</span> staying.<br />
They asked us if <span class="hl">we</span> knew where <span class="hl">the station</span> <span class="lw">was</span>.</li>
<li>She wanted to know what <span class="hl">he</span> <span class="lw">was</span> doing at the weekend.<br />
Do you know if <span class="hl">you</span>'<span class="lw">ll be</span> seeing Peter later?</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Question tags</span> - Inversion is used:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>She didn't grow up here, <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">she</span>?</li>
<li>You are going to Sally's party, <span class="lw">aren't</span> <span class="hl">you</span>?</li>
<li>You haven't done your homework,<span class="lw"> have</span> <span class="hl">you</span>?</li>
<li>We should leave soon, <span class="lw">shouldn't</span> <span class="hl">we</span>?</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Echo questions</span> - Inversion is used:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">A:</span>That's Miss Spence. She's our daughter's new history teacher.<br />
<span class="nml">B:</span> <span class="lw">Is</span> <span class="hl">she</span> really? She looks so young.</li>
<li><span class="nml">A:</span> He's just won a place at Oxford.<br />
<span class="nml">B:</span> <span class="lw">Has</span> <span class="hl">he</span> indeed? You must be really proud of him.</li>
<li><span class="nml">A:</span> We saw Peter yesterday.<br />
<span class="nml">B:</span> Oh, <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">you</span>? And how is he? I haven't seen him for ages.</li>
<li><span class="nml">A:</span> Come on children, it's time for bed.<br />
<span class="nml">B:</span> Oh <span class="lw">must</span> <span class="hl">we</span>? We want to watch the film.<br />
<span class="nml">(= short for '<em>Must we go to bed now</em>')</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>1.2 <em>So</em> and <em>neither/nor</em></h3>
<h4>Same way answers - expressing agreement</h4>
<div class="m10">The most common way to give a same-way answer is to use <span class="bQ">so</span> or <span class="bQ">neither</span> and subject-auxiliary inversion, but there are also a couple of other ways:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">A:</span> <span class="hl">I</span> really like his latest film.<br />
<span class="nml">B:</span> So <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">I</span>.<br />
<span class="hl">I</span> <span class="lw">do</span> too.<br />
Me too. <span class="nml">(informal)</li>
<li><span class="nml">A:</span> But <span class="hl">I</span> <span class="lw">haven't</span> seen all his films.<br />
<span class="nml">B:</span> Neither <span class="lw">have</span> <span class="hl">I</span>.<br />
<span class="hl">I</span> <span class="lw">haven't</span> either.<br />
Me neither. <span class="nml">(informal)</span> </li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - if you want to use the informal version when agreeing with a negative, remember to say <span class="bQ">'Me neither'</span> and NOT <span class="bQ">'Me too'</span>. Remember too that inversion isn't used with opposite way answers, when we disagree:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">A:</span> I really like jazz. <br />
<span class="nml">B:</span> Oh, <span class="hl">I</span> <span class="lw">don't</span>. I find it boring.</li>
<li><span class="nml">A:</span> I haven't seen that new film yet. <br />
<span class="nml">B:</span> Oh, <span class="hl">I</span> <span class="lw">have</span>. I really enjoyed it.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Same way linking</h4>
<div class="m10">We can do something similar when joining two same-way clauses (or sentences) with <span class="bQ">and so, nor, and neither</span>. Here we have a choice of two forms for the second part - inverted with <span class="bQ">so</span> or <span class="bQ">neither</span>, or standard word order with <span class="bQ">too</span> or <span class="bQ">either</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">We can use both <span class="bQ">so</span> and <span class="bQ">neither / nor</span> + auxiliary + noun phrase</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>She can swim really well, and so <span class="lw">can</span> <span class="hl">her sister</span>. <br />
<span class="nml">or - </span>She can swim really well, and <span class="hl">her sister</span> <span class="lw">can</span> too.</li>
<li>She can't sing for peanuts, and neither <span class="lw">can</span> <span class="hl">her brother</span>. <br />
<span class="nml">or - </span>She can't sing for peanuts, and <span class="hl">her brother</span> <span class="lw">can't</span> either.</li>
<li>He really likes jazz. And so <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">his children</span>.<br />
<span class="nml">or - </span>He really likes jazz. And <span class="hl">his children</span> <span class="lw">do</span>, too.</li>
<li>He doesn't like rap, nor <span class="lw">does</span> <span class="hl">his wife</span>.<br />
<span class="nml">or - </span>He doesn't like rap and <span class="hl">his wife</span> <span class="lw">doesn't</span> either.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - Remember that <span class="bQ">neither</span> and <span class="bQ">nor</span> are always used with a positive verb, and <span class="bQ">either</span> with a negative verb (or in questions). Inversion is not used when the two clauses express a contrast, for example after <span class="bQ">but</span> - <span class="bQ">'She can swim really well, but her sister can't'</span>.</div>
<h4>Starting a second clause or sentence with <em>nor</em>.</h4>
<div class="m10">After a first clause or sentence containing a negative, we can introduce a second clause or sentence with <span class="bQ">nor</span> + auxiliary + clause, as a rather more formal alternative to <span class="bQ">and</span> + negative clause or <span class="bQ">nor</span> + positive clause. Note the use of <span class="bQ">'to do so'</span> to avoid repeating a verb from the previous clause.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>They don't have a car, nor <span class="lw">have</span> <span class="hl">they</span> shown any signs of wanting one.<br />
<span class="nml">or </span>They don't have a car, and they haven't shown any signs of wanting one.</li>
<li>He doesn't want to retire until next year. Nor <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl"><span class="ref" title="dummy subject - introductory 'there'">there</span></span> any good reason why he should.<br />
<span class="nml">or </span>He doesn't want to retire until next year. And there isn't any good reason why he should.</li>
<li>She hasn't applied for the job yet, nor <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">we</span> expect her to do so.<br />
<span class="nml">or </span>She hasn't applied for the job yet, and we don't expect her to.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">When both clauses have the same subject, <span class="bQ">nor</span> + inversion is used for greater emphasis. More commonly we'd use <span class="bQ">or</span> and not repeat the subject.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>He doesn't go to the theatre, nor <span class="lw">does</span> <span class="hl">he</span> visit museums.<br />
<span class="nml">or more commonly - </span>He doesn't go to the theatre or visit museums.</li>
<li>She could not play the piano, nor <span class="lw">could</span> <span class="hl">she</span> sing very well.<br />
<span class="nml">or more commonly - </span>She could not play the piano or sing very well</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">We can also use <span class="bQ">nor</span> + inversion after a first clause containing a word with a negative meaning, like <span class="bQ">hardly, rarely</span> etc:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>He rarely goes there nowadays. Nor <span class="lw">does</span> <span class="hl">he</span> miss the place particularly.</li>
<li>I hardly know him. Nor <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">I</span> know whis brother very well.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Trivia corner</span> - In a rather formal and old-fashioned style, the expression <span class="bQ">'to do so'</span> is itself occasionally used with <span class="bQ">so</span> fronted - <span class="bQ">'so to do'</span>, but not often in <span class="bQ">nor</span> clauses. Nowadays this seems mainly confined to legal texts.</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li>I can live alone, if self-respect, and circumstances require me so to do.<br />
<span class="nml">Jane Eyre, Charlotte Bronte</span></li>
<li>The legal defence was that a civil servant can pass on information if it is in the interests of the state so to do. <br />
<span class="nml">(from the British National Corpus - <span class="bQ">to do so</span> would be more common here)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>neither</em> ... <em>nor</em> ...</h4>
<div class="m10">When we use the correlative <span class="bQ">neither ... nor ...</span> construction with a full clause in the second part, we need to invert the second negative. </div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>I neither know him, nor <span class="lw">have</span> <span class="hl">I</span> ever seen him before.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">We can also invert the first clause, a type of negative inversion used for special effect, in which case we need a parallel full clause in the second part, also inverted:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Neither <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">I</span> believe a word he says, nor <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">I</span> trust him an inch.<br />
<span class="strike">Neither <span class="hl">do</span> <span class="hl">I</span> believe a word he says, nor trust him an inch.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But notice these other <span class="bQ">neither ... nor ...</span> constructions (without inversion):</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">One subject, two verbs</span><br />
He neither smokes nor drinks.</li>
<li><span class="nml">Two subjects, one verb</span><br />
Neither he nor his sister smokes. <span class="nml">(standard - singular verb)</span><br />
Neither he nor his sister smoke. <span class="nml">(informal - plural verb)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hdr">
<h2><span>2. Subject-auxiliary inversion - optional, for emphasis</span></h2>
<div class="m10">This is usually used for emphatic or literary effect, and includes:</div>
<ul class="lsn2">
<li><span class="instr">2.1</span> Negative inversion with fronted adverbials</li>
<li><span class="instr">2.2</span> Inverting conditionals</li>
<li><span class="instr">2.3</span> <span class="bQ">as</span> + inversion in follow-on clauses/ sentences</li>
<li><span class="instr">2.4</span> <span class="bQ">than</span> + inversion in comparatives</li>
<li><span class="instr">2.5</span> Exclamations</li>
<li><span class="instr">2.6</span> Hopes and wishes starting with <span class="bQ">may</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>2.1 Negative inversion</h3>
<div class="m10">This involves fronting a negative or restrictive adverb or adverbial phrase and inverting the subject and auxuliary. This is usually done for emphatic effect. For example:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">standard word order</span><br />
<span class="hl">He</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="ft">seldom</span> heard such wonderful music
</li>
<li><span class="nml">inverted word order</span><br />
<span class="ft">Seldom</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">he</span> heard such wonderful music
</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - Sometimes the adverbial expression in the standard word order is split into two parts. You need to put these together in the inverted version. Remember that you also need to add <span class="bQ">do/does/did</span> in simple tenses:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">standard word order</span><br />
<span class="hl">She</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="ft">never</span> been treated so badly <span class="ft">before</span>.<br />
<span class="hl">He</span> <span class="ft">only</span> realised he had forgotten his wallet <span class="ft">when he was asked for his ID</span>.
</li>
<li><span class="nml">inverted version</span><br />
<span class="ft">Never before</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">she</span> been treated so badly.<br />
<span class="ft">Only when he was asked for his ID</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">he</span> realise he had forgotten his wallet. </li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - We can't just invert every time we have a negative adverbial: there are a few set patterns. But if we do front the negative adverbial, then inversion is obligatory. Notice especially the verb forms used in each pattern. For a more detailed discussion, see my post on making sense of negative inversion, linked to above.</div>
<h4><em>never</em> ...</h4>
<div class="m10">This is most often used with present perfect or past perfect, and typically with <span class="bQ">so</span> or <span class="bQ">such</span> (or a similar expression) to express the uniqueness or near uniqueness of an experience, or to make a comment about it.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Never before</span> <span class="lw">have</span> <span class="hl">I</span> been treated so badly. <br />
<span class="ft">And never again</span> <span class="lw">will</span> <span class="hl">I</span> put up with that sort of treatment. </li>
<li><span class="ft">Never</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">he</span> make the slightest fuss, even though he was in some discomfort.<br />
<span class="ft">Never for one moment</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">she</span> imagine that she would become so successful. </li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Note the saying:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Never </span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a truer thing</span> said in jest.</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>rarely / seldom</em>, <em>hardly ever</em></h4>
<div class="m10">When used with present perfect or past perfect, these also often appear with <span class="bQ">so</span> or <span class="bQ">such</span> (or a similar expression):</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Rarely</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">she</span> seen such beautiful countryside.<br />
<span class="ft">Very rarely</span> <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">we</span> hear music of this quality.<br />
She's quite an excitable dog, but <span class="ft">rarely</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">this</span> a problem.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Seldom</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">he</span> seen anything quite like it.<br />
<span class="ft">Only seldom</span> <span class="lw">does</span> <span class="hl">someone</span> become a criminal by chance.<br />
<span class="ft">Seldom</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">she</span> heard to say a word against him.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Hardly ever</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">she</span> experienced feelings like these.<br />
<span class="ft">Hardly ever</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">they</span> get to do anything in the slightest bit interesting.<br />
We always go with high expectations, and <span class="ft">hardly ever</span> <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">we</span> disappointed.</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>no sooner</em> + past perfect, <em>than</em> + past simple<br />
<em>scarcely / barely / hardly</em> + past perfect, <em>when</em> + past simple</h4>
<div class="m10">Note the two different patterns - <span class="bQ">than</span> with <span class="bQ">no sooner</span> and <span class="bQ">when</span> with the others.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">No sooner</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">she</span> left the house, <span class="ft">than</span> it started to pour with rain.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Barely</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">he</span> sat down, <span class="ft">when</span> there was a knock at the door.</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>on no account / under no circumstances / at no time / nowhere / no way</em></h4>
<div class="m10">We can invert after <span class="bQ">no</span> in a few set expressions, but only these: </div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">On no account</span> <span class="lw">should</span> <span class="hl">you</span> tell anyone else about this. </li>
<li><span class="ft">Under no circumstances</span> <span class="lw">must</span> <span class="hl">this information</span> be disclosed to our competitors</li>
<li><span class="ft">At no time</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">I</span> informed of their decision.</li>
<li>But Officer! <span class="ft">Nowhere</span> <span class="lw">does</span> <span class="hl">it</span> say that I cannot park here.</li>
<li><span class="ft">No way</span> <span class="lw">am</span> <span class="hl">I</span> going to pay that much for an ice cream! It's daylight robbery!<br />
<span class="nml">(this is quite informal)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>not until / not since</em> + expression of time</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Not until much later</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">he</span> find out the truth.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Not since she lived in Tuscany</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">she</span> tasted such delicious food.</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>not even if</em> + clause; <em>not for</em> + noun phrase / <em>not for nothing</em> + clause</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Not even if they paid him double</span> <span class="lw">would</span> <span class="hl">he</span> work this weekend.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Not for all the tea in China</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">I</span> going to miss this match! <br />
<span class="nml">(idiom meaning '<em>not for anything</em>', also <span class="bQ">'not for all the money in the world'</span>)</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">Not for nothing</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">he</span> called Lightning Smith! <br />
<span class="nml">(idiom meaning <em>'for a very good reason'</em>)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>not only</em> ..., <em>(but)(also) / (not even)</em> ...</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Not only</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the food</span> below expectations, (but) they (also) overcharged us.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Not only</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">they</span> refuse to give us a refund, (but) they didn't (even) apologise.</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>not</em> + object followed by inversion</h4>
<div class="m10">This can happen with a standard verb form or passive infinitive:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Not a single word</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">he</span> say.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Not a penny</span> <span class="lw">have</span> <span class="hl">they</span> received in compensation.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Not a moment</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">to be lost</span>.<br />
<span class="nml">(= We weren't to lose a moment)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>only</em> + time expression</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Only <span class="">then</span></span> <span class="lw">did</span> the truth dawn on me.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Only <span class="">once you've read the book</span></span> <span class="lw">will</span> <span class="hl">you</span> see what I'm talking about.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Only <span class="">after she showed them her picture in a newspaper</span></span> <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">they</span> convinced that she was who she said she was.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Only <span class="">rarely / seldom</span></span> <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">we</span> get the chance to see a performance as good as this.</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>only if</em> + clause / <em>only by</em> + -ing form</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Only if you increase the discount</span> <span class="lw">can</span> <span class="hl">we</span> possibly accept this deal.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Only by bribing the porter</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">we</span> manage to get a meal sent up to our room.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - With <span class="bQ">only</span> in particular, the negative adverbial expression can be quite long, and may be in two parts in the uninverted version. You may also have to change the order of the sentence. Compare these uninverted sentences with their inverted versions above:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="hl">They</span> <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="ft">only</span> convinced that she was who she said she was<span class="ft"> after she showed them her picture in a newspaper</span>.</li>
<li><span class="hl">We</span> <span class="ft">only</span> <span class="lw">managed</span> to get a meal sent up to our room <span class="ft">by bribing the porter</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Notice that we can also use an <span class="bQ">'it'</span> cleft with these expressions, in which case inversion is not used: </div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ul">It was</span> <span class="ft">only after she showed them her picture in a newspaper</span> <span class="ul">that</span> <span class="hl">they</span> <span class="lw">were</span> convinced that she was who she said she was.</li>
<li><span class="ul">It was</span> <span class="ft">only by bribing the porter</span> <span class="ul">that</span> <span class="hl">we</span> <span class="lw">managed</span> to get a meal sent up to our room.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - We don't invert after <span class="bQ">only</span> if it is not followed by a time expression or an <span class="bQ">if/by</span> clause.</div>
<h4><em>little</em> + <em>do / does / did</em></h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Little</span> <span class="lw">does</span> <span class="hl">he</span> realise what's in store for him.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Little</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">we</span> suspect how much trouble he would cause us.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Little</span> <span class="lw">does</span> <span class="hl">she</span> care what I think.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">This pattern with <span class="bQ">little</span> is used with verbs like <span class="bQ">imagine, know, realise, suspect, understand</span>, and is only used in present simple and past simple. Short forms like <span class=" bQ">'Little does he know!</span>' and <span class="bQ">'Little does she care'</span> are used quite idiomatically in spoken language.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4>Exercises</h4>
<div class="m10">You can find some exercises on negative inversion <a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/05/negative-inversion-practice-exercises.html">here</a></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>2.2 Inversion with conditionals</h3>
<h4>The basics</h4>
<div class="m10">In conditionals, we can invert the subject and the auxiliaries <span class="bQ">should</span>, <span class="bQ">were</span> and <span class="bQ">had</span> (but no others), and omitting <span class="bQ">if</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="lw">Should</span> <span class="hl">you</span> see Peter, can you tell him I was looking for him?</li>
<li><span class="lw">Were</span> <span class="hl">they</span> not to offer me the job, I'd be very disappointed.</li>
<li><span class="lw">Had</span> <span class="hl">he</span> been listening more carefully, he might have realised his mistake.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - When inverting negative <span class="bQ">if</span>-clauses, we can't use contractions: <span class="bQ">shouldn't, weren't</span> and <span class="bQ">hadn't</span>; we must use the full negative: <span class="bQ">should ... not, were ... not</span> and <span class="bQ">had ... not</span>.</div>
<h4><em>should</em> - real conditionals</h4>
<div class="m10">If we can reasonably add <span class="bQ">'by any chance'</span>, <span class="bQ">'happen to'</span>, or <span class="bQ">'chance to'</span> to a real time conditional referring to the present or future, then we can replace that expression with <span class="bQ">should</span> and invert. We can do this with some 1st conditionals, and some conditionals that don't fit the 1st conditional pattern:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>If <span class="hl">you</span> see Peter later, tell him I was asking for him.<br />
If <span class="hl">you</span> <span class="ul">chance to</span> see Peter later, tell him I was asking for him.<br />
If <span class="hl">you</span> <span class="lw">should</span> see Peter later, tell him I was asking for him.<br />
<span class="lw">Should</span> <span class="hl">you</span> see Peter later on, tell him I was asking for him.</li>
<li>If <span class="hl">he</span> <span class="ul">happens not to</span> be at his office, you can contact him on this number.<br />
<span class="lw">Should</span> <span class="hl">he</span> <span class="lw">not</span> be at his office, you can contact him on this number. </li>
<li>If <span class="ul">by any chance</span> your friends are hungry, there's some pie in the fridge.<br />
<span class="lw">Should</span> <span class="hl">your friends</span> be hungry, there's some pie in the fridge</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>were</em> - unreal present and future conditions (2nd conditional)</h4>
<div class="m10">There are two ways of inverting 2nd conditionals: if the main verb or the auxiliary in the <span class="bQ">if</span>-clause is <span class="bQ">was</span> or <span class="bQ">were</span>, we can simply invert it and omit <span class="bQ">if</span>. Note that we can only invert with <span class="bQ">were</span>, so <span class="bQ">was</span> must be changed to <span class="bQ">were</span>. </div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>If <span class="hl">she</span> <span class="lw">was/were</span> a bit older, she could travel by herself.<br />
<span class="lw">Were</span> <span class="hl">she</span> a bit older, she could travel by herself.</li>
<li>If <span class="hl">he</span> <span class="lw">was/were</span> offering us better discount, we would accept<br />
<span class="lw">Were</span> <span class="hl">he</span> offering us better discount, we would accept</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In all other cases we need to change the verb in the <span class="bQ">if</span> clause from past simple to a <span class="bQ">were to</span> construction (usually used to make suggestions more tentative). We seem to be able to this with most 2nd conditionals, especially when we think (or hope) that the condition is more unlikely.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>If <span class="hl">the government</span> introduced this tax, it would affect a lot of people.<br />
If <span class="hl">the government</span> <span class="lw">were to</span> introduce this tax, it would affect a lot of people.<br />
<span class="lw">Were</span> <span class="hl">the government</span> <span class="lw">to</span> introduce this tax, it would affect a lot of people. </li>
<li>If <span class="hl">they</span> didn't accept our offer, we'd have to look elsewhere.<br />
<span class="lw">Were</span> <span class="hl">they</span> <span class="lw">not to</span> accept our offer, we would have to look elsewhere.</li>
<li>The tornado could cause a lot of damage if <span class="hl">it</span> hit Havana, .<br />
The tornado could cause a lot of damage <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">it</span> <span class="lw">to</span> hit Havana, .</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - Inversion is not very common when <span class="bQ">were</span> is the main verb, and it seems to work better when <span class="bQ">were</span> is followed by an adjective phrase rather than a noun or pronoun. In particular, we would be very unlikely to invert the set expression <span class="bQ">'If I were you'</span> to <span class=" bQ">'Were I you'</span> (although it is possible, if somewhat literary and perhaps, old fashioned). See note and graph at the end.</div>
<h4><em>had</em> - unreal past conditions (3rd conditional)</h4>
<div class="m10">We can invert any 3rd conditional by inverting <span class="bQ">had</span> and the subject and omitting <span class="bQ">if</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>If <span class="hl">you</span> <span class="lw">had</span> told me earlier, I would have been able to do something about it.<br />
<span class="lw">Had</span> <span class="hl">you</span> told me earlier, I would have been able to do something about it.</li>
<li>He'd never have believed it if <span class="hl">he</span> <span class="lw">hadn't</span> seen it with his own eyes.<br />
He'd never have believed it <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">he</span> <span class="lw">not</span> seen it with his own eyes, </li>
</ul>
<h4>Mixed conditionals</h4>
<div class="m10">We can invert mixed conditionals with <span class="bQ">were</span> or <span class="bQ">had</span>, depending on whether the condition clause relates to the present or the past</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="lw">Had</span> <span class="hl">he</span> not worked so hard, he wouldn't be where he is now.<br />
<span class="nml">(3rd / 2nd) - past condition, present result</span></li>
<li><span class="lw">Were</span> <span class="hl">she</span> not so lazy, she would have passed her exams.<br />
<span class="nml">(2nd / 3rd) - present (general) condition, past result</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>If it wasn't / weren't / hadn't been for</em></h4>
<div class="m10">This is an idiom using the unreal past used to say that one event makes another event possible (or impossible). We use <span class="bQ">if it wasn't / weren't for</span> to talk about present and future situations, and <span class="bQ">if it hadn't been for</span> for past situations.</div>
<div class="m10">As with 1st and 2nd person singular in Second conditionals, we can use <span class="bQ">was</span> or <span class="bQ">were</span> (more formal). We can invert these expressions in the same way as with Second and Third conditionals. And as with Second conditionals, when we invert we must change <span class="bQ">was</span> to <span class="bQ">were</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>If <span class="hl">it</span> <span class="lw">wasn't for</span> my father's help, we wouldn't be able to pay the mortgage.<br />
<span class="lw">Were</span> <span class="hl">it</span> <span class="lw">not for</span> my father's help, we wouldn't be able to pay the mortgage.</li>
<li>She would never have entered the competition if <span class="hl">it</span> <span class="lw">had not been</span> for the encouragement of her English teacher.<br />
She would never have entered the competition <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">it</span> <span class="lw">not been</span> for the encouragement of her English teacher.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Exceptions 1 - <em>should</em> in 2nd conditionals</h4>
<div class="m10">We sometimes use a Second conditional to make a suggestion more tentative or polite, in negotiations for example. In these cases we can use <span class="bQ">should</span>, and can also invert with <span class="bQ">should</span> instead of <span class="bQ">were (to)</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>If <span class="hl">you</span> increased your order, we would consider free delivery.<br />
If <span class="hl">you</span> <span class="lw">should</span> increase your order, we would consider free delivery.<br />
<span class="lw">Should</span> <span class="hl">you</span> increase your order, we would consider free delivery.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Exceptions 2 - <em>were</em> in 3rd conditionals</h4>
<div class="m10">Sometimes a construction with <span class="bQ">were to have</span> + past participle (3rd form) can be used instead of <span class="bQ">had</span> in a third conditional. This can suggest that something is even more hypothetical or sometimes suggests that the consequences would have been very serious. We can also invert this.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>If <span class="hl">the police</span> <span class="lw">were to have</span> found out, he would have been in trouble.<br />
<span class="lw">Were</span> <span class="hl">the police</span> <span class="lw">to have</span> found out, he would have been in trouble.</li>
<li style="list-style:none;"><span class="nml">a variation on standard 3rd conditional form</span></li>
<li>If <span class="hl">the police</span> <span class="lw">had</span> found out, he would have been in trouble.<br />
<span class="lw">Had</span> <span class="hl">the police</span> found out he would have been in trouble</li>
</ul>
<h4>Rarer types of inversion in conditionals</h4>
<div class="m10">There are a few rather more exotic types of conditional inversion that ESL/EFL books don't usually talk about. I'm certainly not suggesting that foreign learners should use these, but you might come across them in books, films etc:</div>
<h4>In a few cases with <em>have</em> for possession and <em>have to</em> for obligation. </h4>
<div class="m10">Inversion is very occasionally used when talking about possession, especially with things like <em>time, money, space, understanding, money, inclination</em>. This seems to happen most with comparatives or other adjectives, and its use seems to be in decline:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="lw">Had</span> <span class="hl">I</span> the inclination, I would work harder; but I really can't be bothered.</li>
<li><span class="lw">Had</span> <span class="hl">we</span> the necessary time and resources, we could go ahead with this project.</li>
<li><span class="lw">Had</span> <span class="hl">we</span> a better understanding of what is involved, I might agree with you.</li>
</ul>
<div class="n10">On very rare occasions it also happens with <span class="bQ">have to</span> for obligation too, mainly with <span class="bQ">I</span> and <span class="bQ">we</span>. This use also seems to be in decline:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="lw">Had</span> <span class="hl">I</span> <span class="lw">to</span> do it all over again, I would go about it rather differently.</li>
<li><span class="lw">Had</span> <span class="hl">he</span> <span class="lw">to</span> choose between the two locations, he says he would choose Spain.</li>
<li><span class="lw">Had</span> <span class="hl">we</span> <span class="lw">to</span> depend on his help, we should never get anything done.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Conclusion</h4>
<div class="m10">Inversion with <span class="bQ">had</span> seems to be much more common than with <span class="bQ">should</span> or <span class="bQ">were</span>, but the use of inversion in conditionals in general seems to be declining.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4>Exercises</h4>
<div class="m10">You can find lots of exercises on inversion with conditionals <a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2013/01/inversion-in-conditionals.html">here</a></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>2.3 <em>as + auxiliary (or <em>be</em>)</em> in a follow-on clause or sentence</h3>
<div class="m10">In a fairly literary style, we can start a second clause or a new sentence with <span class="bQ">as</span> instead of <span class="bQ">and so</span>, to say somebody or something is or does something similar in some way to the people or things mentioned in the previous clause or sentence. As with <span class="bQ">and so</span>, we need to invert.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Peter is a doctor, as <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">his wife Mary</span>.<br />
<span class="nml">(or informally -</span> and so <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">his wife Mary</span>.<span class="nml">)</span></li>
<li>She comes from Sweden, as <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">several other members of the class</span>.</li>
<li>The upper floors were burning, as <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">one of the rooms on the ground floor</span>. </li>
<li>He has already passed his driving test, as <span class="lw">has</span> <span class="hl">his twin sister, Sally</span>.</li>
<li>The brothers can sing rather well. As indeed <span class="lw">can</span> <span class="hl">the rest of the family</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">This construction sounds strange with pronouns, and seems to sound best with quite long subjects.</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - We don't invert when the subject of both clauses is the same:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>My sister is taking the bus to school, as <span class="hl">she</span> <span class="lw">does</span> every day.</li>
<li>We're spending Christmas at my parents' home, as <span class="hl">we</span>'<span class="lw">
ve</span> always <span class="lw">done</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>2.4 Comparatives with '<em>than</em>'</h3>
<div class="m10">This is sometimes used when directly comparing two people, things or situations (one of which is the subject). It is rather literary and not common in spoken language (where we often drop the second verb altogether). It is totally optional, and I would suggest foreign learners avoid it as it can sound very strange. </div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>The Prado has more Goyas than <span class="lw">has</span> <span class="hl">any other gallery</span>.<br />
The Prado has more Goyas than <span class="hl">any other gallery</span> <span class="lw">(has)</span>. <span class="nml">(more natural)</span></li>
<li>She sings a lot better than <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">the rest of her family.</span>.<br />
She sings a lot better than <span class="hl">the rest of her family</span> <span class="lw">(do)</span>. <span class="nml">(more natural)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Like inversion after <span class="bQ">as</span>, this sounds least natural with pronouns, and best with longer and more complicated subjects. But even then, it is more natural just to omit the verb.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Their house is rather grander than <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">others in the neighbourhood</span>.<br />
Their house is rather grander than <span class="hl">others in the neighbourhood</span> <span class="lw">(are)</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>2.6 Exclamations</h3>
<div class="m10">We sometimes use a negative question form to give emphasis to an exclamation.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="lw">Haven't</span> <span class="hl">you</span> grown, young man?</li>
<li><span class="lw">Isn't</span> <span class="hl">it</span> cold in here?</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Sometimes non-negative question forms are used, especially in American English. Using question form is optional and usually quite informal.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Boy, <span class="lw">does</span> <span class="hl">that casserole</span> smell good!<br />
<span class="nml">(or </span>Boy, that casserole smells good.<span class="nml">)</span></li>
<li>Well, <span class="lw">have</span> <span class="hl">we</span> got a surprise for you!<br /></li>
<li>Man, <span class="lw">can</span> <span class="hl">that woman</span> sing!</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">See also exclamations with <span class="bQ">how</span> and <span class="bQ">what</span>.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>2.7 Hopes and wishes with <em>may</em></h3>
<div class="m10">These are typically found in greetings and sympathy cards, and in toasts etc:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="lw">May</span> <span class="hl">all your wishes</span> come true</li>
<li><span class="lw">May</span> <span class="hl">she</span> rest in peace.</li>
<li><span class="lw">May</span> <span class="hl">you</span> have a long and fruitful marriage.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">And in film and music:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="lw">May</span> <span class="hl">the force</span> be with you!<br />
<span class="nml">(Star Wars)</span></li>
<li><span class="lw">May</span> <span class="hl">all your Christmasses</span> be white!<br />
<span class="nml">(from White Christmas - Irving Berlin)</span></li>
<li>Long <span class="lw">may</span> <span class="hl">you</span> run <br />
<span class="nml">(album by the Neal Young / Steve Stills band)</span></li>
<li><span class="lw">May</span> <span class="hl">sheep</span> safely graze. <br />
<span class="nml">(Cantata by J.S.Bach)</span></li>
<li>Long <span class="lw">may</span> <span class="hl">she</span> reign!<br />
<span class="nml">(from 'God save the Queen' - the British national anthem)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Some are not quite so sympathetic:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="lw">May</span> <span class="hl">you</span> live in interesting times! <span class="nml">(this is ironic, wishing someone bad luck)</span></li>
<li><span class="lw">May</span> <span class="hl">he</span> rot in hell (for all eternity)!</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hdr">
<h2>3. Fronting and inversion with <em>so</em> and <em>such</em></h2>
<div class="m10">Typically used with <span class="bQ">that</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">So exhausted</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">he</span> feel that he went straight to bed.</li>
<li><span class="ft">So well</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">she</span> run her business that it became the leader in its field.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Such</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">his strength of serve</span> that his opponent rarely managed to return it.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">For more detail, see the individual sections:</div>
<ul class="lsn2">
<li><span class="instr">3.1</span> <span class="bQ">So</span> + adjective + linking verb + <span class="bQ">that</span> clause</li>
<li><span class="instr">3.2</span> <span class="bQ">So</span> + adverb + verb + <span class="bQ">that</span> clause</li>
<li><span class="instr">3.3</span> <span class="bQ">Such</span> + <span class="bQ">be</span> + noun phrase + <span class="bQ">that</span> clause</li>
<li><span class="instr">3.4</span> <span class="bQ">So much / little did ... that ...</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">3.5</span> Using <span class="bQ">such</span> to refer back to something already mentioned</li>
<li><span class="instr">3.6</span> Some expressions with <span class="bQ">so</span> and <span class="bQ">such</span> using inversion</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>3.1 <em>So</em> + adjective + linking verb + <em>that</em> clause</h3>
<div class="m10">When we use an adjective with <span class="bQ">be</span> we can invert the whole verb, not just the auxiliary:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">So strong</span> <span class="lw">had been</span> <span class="hl">the wind</span> that several trees had been blown down.</li>
<li><span class="ft">So powerful</span> <span class="lw">would be</span> <span class="hl">the attraction of the sea</span> that before long he would join the navy.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But when we use other (linking) verbs, we seem to be limited to subject-auxiliary inversion: </div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">So tired</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">he</span> become, that he immediately went to bed</li>
<li><span class="ft">So good</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">his steak</span> look that we ordered one each for ourselves</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">I've listed some more examples in the final section of this post.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>3.2 <em>So</em> + adverb + verb + <em>that</em> clause</h3>
<div class="m10">Here we seem only to be able to invert subject and auxiliary:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">So often</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">he</span> played his opponent that they knew each other's every move.</li>
<li><span class="ft">So well</span> <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">the team</span> playing, that he began to wonder if they might not win.</li>
<li><span class="ft">So badly</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">he </span>feel about what he had said that he couldn't sleep at all.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>3.3 <em>Such</em> + <em>be</em> + noun phrase + <em>that</em> clause</h3>
<div class="m10">We sometimes use noun phrases followed by <span class="bQ">be</span> + <span class="bQ">such that</span> ...</span>to emphasise the degree or quality of something, understandable from context:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="hl">His commitment to the job</span> <span class="lw">is</span> such, that he often works at weekends.<br /><span class="nml">He is very committed - perhaps he should 'get a life'</span></li>
<li><span class="hl">The weather</span> <span class="lw">was</span> such that they spent most of the time indoors.<br />
<span class="nml">The weather was very bad</span></li>
<li><span class="hl">The outcry</span> <span class="lw">had been</span> such, that the council had to change their decision.<br />
<span class="nml">There had been a huge outcry</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In a more emphatic version, we can front <span class="bQ">such</span>, and invert the subject and verb:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Such</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">his commitment to the job</span>, that he often works at weekends.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Such</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the weather</span> that they spent most of the time indoors.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Such</span> <span class="lw">had been</span> <span class="hl">the outcry</span> that the council had to change their decision.></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">These clauses can also be reversed, leaving out <span class="bQ">that</span> (and adding a comma):</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>He often works at weekends, <span class="ft">such</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">his commitment to the job</span>.</li>
<li>The council had to change their decision, <span class="ft">such</span> <span class="lw">had been</span> <span class="hl">the outcry</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>3.4 <em>So much / little did ... that ...</em> </h3>
<div class="m10">These constructions were quite popular in 19th century books, but seem to be dying out.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>So much <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">his manner</span> annoy her that she tried to avoid him at all costs.</li>
<li>So much <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">he</span> rely on her advice that when she left he didn't know what to do. </li>
<li>So little <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">he</span> know about the business, that I'm surprised the company survived at all.</li>
<li>So little <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">they</span> care about their employees that strikes were quite frequent.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>3.5 Using <em>such</em> to refer back to something already mentioned</h3>
<div class="m10">We can also use <span class="bQ">such</span>, instead of <span class="bQ">this</span>, <span class="bQ">that</span> or <span class="bQ">which</span>, to refer back to something already said and put new information to the end of the clause:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Some animals carry their young in pouches. Such <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the case with the kangaroo and the wallaby</span>.<br />
<span class="nml">(or - <span class="em">This is the case with the kangaroo and the wallaby</span>)</span></li>
<li>Jackson resigned at the end of his fifth season. Such <span class="lw">had</span> always <span class="lw">been</span> <span class="hl">his intention</span>. <br />
<span class="nml">(or - <span class="em">Which had always been his intention</span>)</span></li>
<li>Unemployment in the area had always been high, and such <span class="lw">is</span> still <span class="hl">the situation today</span>.<br />
(<span class="nml">or - <span class="em">and that is still the situation today</span>)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Whether those examples constitutes inversion is arguable, but here are a couple of lines from Shania Twain's song '<em>Is There Life After Love?</em>', where there definitely is inversion:</div>
<ul class="bQ10" style="list-style:none;">
<li>But every fool's a lonely fool<br />
And <span class="ft">such a fool</span> <span class="lw">am</span> <span class="hl">I</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In this extract, <span class="bQ">such a</span> + inversion refers back to the previous line, to mean something like <span class="bQ">'that kind of'</span> or <span class="bQ">'... like that'</span>. She's saying that she is also a lonely fool - <span class="bQ">And I'm that kind of fool - a lonely fool</span>.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>3.6 Some expressions with <em>so</em> and <em>such</em> using inversion</h3>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Such <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">life</span> <span class="nml">(= life's like that)</span><br />
It's the weekend and it's raining again! Oh well. Such is life!</li>
<li>A month's holiday on a deserted tropical island! <span class="ft">Such</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the stuff that dreams are made of</span>.</li>
<li>So <span class="lw">be</span> <span class="hl">it</span>. <span class="nml">(An expression of acceptance or resignation)</span><br />
If they appoint him instead of me, so be it.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hdr">
<h2>4. Fronting adverbs and adverbials, with and without inversion </h2>
<div class="m10">This involves swapping the subject and the whole verb, not just the auxiliary. Apart from uses with <span class="bQ">here</span> and <span class="bQ">there</span>, this occurs most often in literary and descriptive writing.</div>
<div class="m10">It's a feature of subject-verb inversion that it rarely occurs with pronouns.</div>
<ul class="lsn2">
<li><span class="instr">4.1</span> <span class="bQ">Here</span> and <span class="bQ">there</span> + <span class="bQ">be, come, go</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">4.2</span> Other common expressions with fronting</li>
<li><span class="instr">4.3</span> Prepositional phrases of place with verbs of position + inversion</li>
<li><span class="instr">4.4</span> Prepositional phrases of direction with verbs of movement + inversion</li>
<li><span class="instr">4.6</span> Prepositional phrases with verbs of position and movement - no inversion</li>
<li><span class="instr">4.7</span> Prepositional phrases of place with other verbs without inversion</li>
<li><span class="instr">4.8</span> Fronting other adverbs and adverbials</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>4.1 <em>Here</em> and <em>there</em></h3>
<div class="m10">Probably the most common type of subject-verb inversion is when we start a sentence with <span class="bQ">here</span> or <span class="bQ">there</span> (when used adverbially to indicate place) and the verbs <span class="bQ">be, come</span> and <span class="bQ">go</span>. If the subject is a noun, we must invert, but we can't invert if it's a pronoun:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Here<span class="lw">'s</span> <span class="hl">your coffee</span>.<br />
Here <span class="hl">it</span> <span class="lw">is</span>.</li>
<li>Here <span class="lw">comes</span> <span class="hl">Peter</span> now.<br />
Here <span class="hl">he</span> <span class="lw">comes</span> now.</li>
<li>There <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">my keys</span>. I've been looking for them everywhere.<br />
Ah! There <span class="hl">it</span> <span class="lw">is</span>. I was wondering where I'd left it.</li>
<li>There <span class="lw">goes</span> <span class="hl">our bus</span>. We've missed it.<br />
There <span class="hl">she</span> <span class="lw">goes</span>. There <span class="hl">she</span> <span class="lw">goes</span> again. <span class="nml">(song by the LA's)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>There</em> (and <em>here</em>) plus position verb</h4>
<div class="m10">In a more literary style we sometimes use adverbial <span class="bQ">there</span>, and to lesser extent <span class="bQ">here</span>, with verbs indicating position, like <span class="bQ">stand</span> and <span class="bQ">sit</span>. Again, pronouns are not inverted:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">There</span> <span class="lw">sat</span> <span class="hl">the children</span>, tired out after their long walk.<br />
There <span class="hl">they</span> <span class="lw">sat</span>, eating their sandwiches.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Here</span> <span class="lw">stands</span> <span class="hl">a memorial to all those killed in the two World Wars</span>.<br />
Here <span class="hl">it</span> <span class="lw">stands</span>, and has done so for centuries.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Introductory <em>there</em></h4>
<div class="m10">Remember that is often more natural to start a sentence with introductory <span class="bQ">there</span> (also known as existential <span class="bQ">there</span> - it tells us something exists somewhere). Some people refer to this as a kind of inversion:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>There <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a large fountain</span> in the garden.<br />
<span class="nml">(<em>'A fountain was in the garden'</em> - sounds strange)</span></li>
<li>There <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">some cups</span> in the cupboard.<br />
<span class="nml">(<em>'Some cups are in the cupboard'</em> - this sounds even stranger)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">When the introductory <span class="bQ">there</span> clause includes an adverbial of position, we can front that adverbial, in which case it is followed by inversion. This is usually done in narratives rather than in spoken language, and we usually omit <span class="bQ">there</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">In the garden</span> (there) <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a large fountain</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">On the sideboard</span> (there) <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">some cups</span> .</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>4.2 Common expressions with fronted adverbs of movement</h3>
<div class="m10">These short adverbial expressions are often used with pronouns when talking informally, especially to children:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Off</span> you go, children, or you'll be late for school.</li>
<li>That's right, <span class="ft">up</span> you come.</li>
<li>And <span class="ft">away</span> she goes!</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>4.3 Fronted prepositional phrases of place + verbs of position</h3>
<div class="m10">In section 4.1 we saw how, in a more literary style, clauses with existential <span class="bQ">there</span> + <span class="bQ">be</span> + prepositional phrases of place can be inverted, usually omitting <span class="bQ">there</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">In the garden</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a large fountain</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">On the sideboard</span> <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">some cups</span> .</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">And we also saw how expressions with <span class="bQ">here</span> and <span class="bQ">there</span> with <span class="bQ">be</span> and verbs of position, like <span class="bQ">sit, stand, lie, hang</span>, etc could be inverted:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Here</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">my passport</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">There</span> <span class="lw">sat</span> <span class="hl">the children</span>, tired out after their long walk.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Here</span> <span class="lw">stands</span> <span class="hl">a memorial to all those killed in the two World Wars</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">We can also invert with these verbs after fronted prepositional phrases of place, as with <span class="bQ">here</span> and <span class="bQ">there</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">In the driveway</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">an old Bentley</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Between the French windows</span> <span class="lw">stood</span> <span class="hl">an antique grandfather clock</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Above the fireplace</span> <span class="lw">hung</span> <span class="hl">a large portrait of a woman dressed in black</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">On the hearthrug</span> <span class="lw">lay</span> <span class="hl">an enormous wolfhound</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">At the bar</span> <span class="lw">sat</span> <span class="hl">a group of young women</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">We can do the same with<span class="bQ"> can / could be</span> + third forms of <span class="bQ">see, hear, make out</span> etc</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">In the background of the painting</span> <span class="lw">can be seen</span> <span class="hl">the old mill house</span>. </li>
<li><span class="ft">Outside in the street</span> <span class="lw">could be heard</span> <span class="hl">the sound of children playing</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">In the distance</span> <span class="lw">could</span> just <span class="lw">be made out</span> <span class="hl">the figure of a lone rider</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Trivia note - <em>was sat</em></span> - increasingly in informal British English you can hear the expression <span class="bQ">was sat</span> etc instead of <span class="bQ">was sitting</span> etc. Not everybody considers this 'correct', but it is becoming increasingly popular with people who speak otherwise perfect English. It can also be used in inverted sentences:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>A young woman was sat at the bar sipping a cocktail.<br />
<span class="ft">Sat at the bar</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a young woman</span> sipping a cocktail.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">See Section 4.5 for examples of situations with fronted adverbials of place and direction where we don't use inversion</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>4.4 Fronted prepositional phrases of direction + verbs of movement</h3>
<div class="m10">Something similar can occur with verbs of movement like <span class="bQ">come, go, climb, fly, roll</span> after prepositional phrases of direction, especially in narratives and literary or more formal styles. When these adverbial expressions are fronted, inversion is possible with noun phrases but is not used with pronouns:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="hl">An old traction engine</span> <span class="lw">came</span> round the corner, steam pouring from its chimney.<br />
<span class="ft">Round the corner</span> <span class="lw">came</span> <span class="hl">an old traction engine</span>, steam pouring from its chimney.<br />
<span class="ft">Round the corner</span> <span class="hl">it</span> <span class="lw">came</span>, steam pouring from its chimney.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Prepositional phrases</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Up the hill</span> <span class="lw">trudged</span> <span class="hl">the weary tramp</span>, knowing that at the top he would find food and shelter.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Over their heads</span> <span class="lw">flew</span> <span class="hl">a large flock of starlings</span>, reeling and darting like a shoal of fish</li>
<li><span class="ft">Off to school</span> <span class="lw">went</span> <span class="hl">the children</span>, having eaten a hearty breakfast.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Down the hill</span> <span class="lw">rolled</span> <span class="hl">an enormous snowball</span>, getting even bigger as it went.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Other adverbial expressions</h4>
<div class="m10">As well as prepositional phrases and <span class="bQ">here</span> and <span class="bQ">there</span>, we can front other adverbial expressions. With simple noun phrases, inversion is common, if optional:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">First</span> <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">the Household Cavalry</span>, and <span class="ft">then</span> <span class="lw">came</span> <span class="hl">the Artillery</span>. <span class="ft">After them</span> <span class="lw">marched</span> <span class="hl">the Brigade of Guards</span> and finally <span class="lw">came</span> <span class="hl">the royal coach itself.</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">Now</span> <span class="lw">comes</span> <span class="hl">the weather</span> and <span class="ft">next</span> <span class="lw">will be</span> <span class="hl">the news</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>4.5 Fronted adverbials of place and direction with verbs of position and movement - without inversion</h3>
<div class="m10">We've just seen in the last two sections how adverbials of place and time can be fronted, and in some cases inverted, particularly with verbs of position or movement. Here are a few contexts where we can't or don't usually invert:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">With pronouns</span><br />
<span class="ft">Up the hill</span> they came, more and more of them.<br />
<span class="ft">On the horizon</span> he could make out some hills.</li>
<li><span class="nml">With transitive verbs</span><br />
<span class="ft">On the table</span> the old woman had placed an old tablecloth.<br />
<span class="ft">Up the hill</span> a man was pushing a wheelbarrow.</li>
<li><span class="nml">When an intransitive verb is followed by an adverb of manner</span><br />
<span class="ft">At the back of the hall</span>, a young girl stood silently holding a candle<br />
<span class="ft">Along the road</span> the old man trudged wearily.</li>
<li><span class="nml">With continuous tenses</span><br />
<span class="ft">In the corridor</span>, some boys were standing talking.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>4.6 Fronted prepositional phrases of place and direction with other verbs - without inversion</h3>
<div class="m10">We don't invert when fronted prepositional phrases are followed by verbs that don't express position or movement:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Somewhere in the house</span>, a door slammed.</li>
<li><span class="ft">In the garden</span> a bird could be heard singing loudly.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Behind the house</span>, someone was digging the garden.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>4.7 Fronting other adverbs and adverbials</h3>
<div class="m10">This is usually done to shift the emphasis. We can front adverbs of manner:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li><span class="ft">Quickly</span>, he gathered up his things and left.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Gently</span>, he tucked the child up in bed.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">And we can front adverbials of time:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li><span class="ft">All month</span>, she waited for his call. </li>
<li><span class="ft">At precisely six o'clock</span>, the telephone rang.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hdr">
<h2>5. Fronted adjectives and participles with inversion</h2>
<ul class="lsn2">
<li><span class="instr">5.1</span> Fronting simple adjectives</li>
<li><span class="instr">5.2</span> Fronting comparatives, superlatives and other forms of comparison</li>
<li><span class="instr">5.3</span> Fronted <span class="bQ">not so</span> constructions</li>
<li><span class="instr">5.4</span> Fronted <span class="bQ">worth a look</span> etc</li>
<li><span class="instr">5.5</span> Double comparatives + inversion - the bigger, the better etc</li>
<li><span class="instr">5.6</span> Fronted present and past participles</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>5.1 Fronted plain adjectives + <em>be</em></h3>
<div class="m10">Adjectives sometimes come after <span class="bQ">be</span> and other linking verbs (in predicative position). Fronting single adjectives as in the following examples is fairly rare and rather literary (it seems to be used mostly in religious books). It mostly seems to occur with adjectives such as <span class="bQ">fortunate, happy</span> etc, and is often used with (reduced) relative clauses. Probably the best known example comes from the King James Bible:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Blessed</span> <span class="lw">are</span><span class="hl"> the meek</span>, for they will inherit the earth. <span class="nml">(Matthew 5:5)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Other literary examples include:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Happy</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the man who finds himself so greatly beloved</span>.<br />
<span class="nml">(The Man in the Iron Mask, Alexandre Dumas)</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">Lucky</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the Queen that has such ministers</span>; and lucky <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the country that is governed by them</span>.<br />
<span class="nml">(The Monthly Law Magazine and Political Review, 1840)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Inversion with adjectives followed by <span class="bQ">indeed</span> seems to be a bit more natural:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Fortunate indeed</span> <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">those who can afford a holiday like that</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Sad indeed</span> <span class="lw">will be</span> <span class="hl">the day when we can't express ourselves freely</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But this example taken from a language website does not seem natural to me at all, sounding more like something Yoda might say</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Quick and painless</span> <span class="lw">will be</span> <span class="hl">your medical procedure</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">There are, however, contexts where adjectives can be fronted with inversion in a much more natural way, as the following three sections show.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>5.2 Fronted comparatives and superlatives and other adjective forms + <em>be</em></h3>
<div class="m10">These are quite natural, and usually follow on from something already said, linking two sentences or clauses. They seem to work best with intensifiers such as <span class="bQ">still, even, far</span> etc for comparatives, and <span class="bQ">by far, of all</span> etc for superlatives. The subject can be a noun phrase or a noun clause (for example, <span class="bQ">wh</span>-clauses and <span class="bQ">that</span> clauses).</div>
<h4>Comparatives + <em>be</em></h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>The starter was excellent, but <span class="ft">better still</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the main course</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">For me, more important than the price</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">whether it's good value for money</span>. </li>
<li>Her first round victory was somewhat unexpected. <span class="ft">No less surprising</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">how easily she beat her second opponent</span>.</li>
<li>Debbie had quite a good day at the races. <span class="ft">Even luckier</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">her friend Nina</span>, who won on every horse she bet on.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Less successful than Debbie or Nina though</span>, <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">their other friend, Paula</span>, who lost all her bets.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Superlatives + <em>be</em></h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Happiest of all</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">Amanda</span>, who had at last met the man of her dreams.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Fastest round the track</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">Fangio</span>, in the Ferrari.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Most impressive of all</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">that she managed to do it all in record time</span>. </li>
<li>All his films were pretty good, but <span class="ft">by far the best</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">'Rio Bravo'</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Least excited at the prospect</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">Mike, who didn't want to go at all</span>.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Expressing equality with <em>equally / just as</em> </h4>
<div class="m10">Here, we express similarity of quality with something else mentioned (often before):</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Equally as disappointing as the starter</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the main course, rather tough roast beef with a soggy Yorkshire pudding</span>.</li>
<li>The boat trip was really great. And <span class="ft">just as good</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the party in the evening afterwards</span>. </li>
</ul>
<h4>Expressing inequality with <em>not so</em>.</h4>
<div class="m10">Here, we express a contrast with something mentioned before. For more on this construction see the next section:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>I just managed to get served before the cashier went off for her lunch. <span class="ft">Not so lucky</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the woman standing behind me in the queue.</span>.</span></li>
<li>We rather enjoyed the street artist's performance. <span class="ft">Not so amusing, however, </span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">discovering that I had been pickpocketed</span>. </li>
</ul>
<h4>Standing out from the rest - <em>particularly</em> and <em>especially</em></h4>
<div class="m10">In a similar way, inversion is quite often used when these two intensifiers are used with such adjectives as <span class="bQ">good, enjoyable, important, noteworthy, significant, striking, notable, interesting, impressive, popular</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">Again the adjective phrase usually refers back to someone or something that has already been mentioned. This sort of inversion can be found in academic texts and criticism, for example. Here are a few examples from Google Books:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li><span class="ft">Especially important</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the fact that George Washington liked it</span>, and he had the ultimate say in selecting the winner.<span class="nml"><br />
(talking of the design for the White House) - <em>The Americas: International Dictionary of Historic Places</em>, Trudy Ring and others, 2013</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">Particularly significant</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">his encouragement of the youthful Erasmus, whose first two publications appeared in works by Gaguin</span>. <br />
<span class="nml">(talking about Robert Gaguin) - <em>Renaissance Thought</em>, Robert Black, 2001</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">Especially striking</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">his indifference to truth</span>.<br />
<span class="nml"><em>Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games</em>, Tennent H. Bagley, 2007</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">Particularly impressive</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the number of bicycles, reportedly over 6 million in a city of 12 million</span>. <br />
<span class="nml">One Lucky Canuck, David A Barr, 2004</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">Especially noteworthy</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the superb diction by the chorus and most of the principals</span>.<br />
<span class="nml">Gilbert and Sullivan Boys and Girls, 2004</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">Particularly noticeable</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the skillful manner in which he arranged the plot</span>. <br />
<span class="nml">Boys' Life - Apr 1964</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>5.3 <em>Not so</em> + adjective + <em>be</em> + inverted subject</h3>
<div class="m10">This usually follows on from something already said. It is used mainly with adjectives suggesting something positive, like <span class="bQ">lucky / fortunate/ happy / good / great</span>. The verb <span class="bQ">be</span> can be followed by a noun phrase or an <span class="bQ">-ing</span> clause. Very occasionally it is followed by a <span class="bQ">that</span> clause, or even more rarely, by a <span class="bQ">to-</span>infinitive clause (in which case it is usually used with a <span class="bQ">what</span> cleft). </div>
<h4>Noun phrases</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Peterson scored a lucky goal early on in the match. <span class="ft">Not so fortunate</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">his teammate Johnson</span>, who missed two easy goals in the second half.</li>
<li>Patricia was over the moon at winning first prize. <span class="ft">Not quite so delighted</span>, however, <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">her rival Amelia</span>, who had assumed that the prize would be hers.</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>-ing</em> clauses, <em>wh-</em> clauses and <em>that</em> clauses</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Not so amusing</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl"><span class="ul">arriving</span> just in time to see our train leave</span>. </li>
<li><span class="ft">Not so funny</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl"><span class="ul">what</span> happened next</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Not so great</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl"><span class="ul">that</span> I lost my wallet</span>.</li>
</ul>
<h4>What clefts</h4>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">Not so</span> comparisons are quite often further emphasised by using <span class="bQ">what</span> clefts</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="hl">The way staff treated us </span> <span class="lw">wasn't</span> <span class="ft">so great</span>. <br />
<span class="nml">= normal Subject Verb order</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">Not so great</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the way staff treated us</span>. <br />
<span class="nml">= fronting + Subject Verb inversion</span>
<li>What was<span class="ft">n't so great</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the way staff treated us</span>. <br />
<span class="nml">= <span class="bQ">what</span>-cleft + Subject Verb inversion</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">A couple of examples:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>The hotel lobby seemed welcoming enough, but what was <span class="ft">not so encouraging</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the state of our room</span>. </li>
<li>What was<span class="ft">n't so funny</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">losing my wallet</span>.</li>
<li>What was <span class="ft">not so great</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">to realise we'd have to spend another three days there</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>5.4 Fronted phrase - <em>worth a look / visit</em> etc. + <em>be</em></h3>
<div class="m10">As an adjective, <span class="bQ">worth</span> is highly unusual in that it is usually followed by a noun phrase or <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form, rather than simply a noun, like most other adjectives:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li>If you're in Paris, the Louvre is well <span class="ul">worth a visit</span>.<br />
The Rodin Museum is also really <span class="ul">worth seeing</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Common noun phrases used after <span class="bQ">worth</span> include <span class="bQ">a try, a visit, a look, a trip, a detour, the wait, the effort, the cost, the price</span> etc.</div>
<div class="m10">An inverted structure with fronted <span class="bQ">worth</span> has become increasingly popular, and is quite common on user-generated websites such as TripAdvisor.com. It is often preceded by <span class="bQ">also</span> or <span class="bQ">well</span> (but NOT <span class="bQ"><span class="strike">very</span></span>). These examples are all from the Internet:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li><span class="ft">Also worth a look</span> <span class="lw">is</span><span class="hl"> the 'Custard Factory' - once owned by Birds Custard</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Well worth a visit</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the 12th century Notre-Dame-la-Grande</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Worth a try</span> <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">traditional thick potato soup and cream of pumpkin</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Well worth the wait</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the Trois Petits Pots de Crème</span>. <span class="nml">(a dessert - I think)</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">Worth a detour</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">Mineral King, a late-19th-century mining and logging camp.</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">Also worth a trip</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the flourishing Jardin Majorelle</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">As well as being used as a simple adjective phrase, it is also sometimes used to modify a fronted noun phrase, rather like a reduced relative clause:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li><span class="ft">Other properties <span class="ul">worth a look</span></span> <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">the historic Goodwood Park and the Shangri-La (hotels)</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Another attraction <span class="ul">potentially worth a detour</span></span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the Cowtown Rodeo</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Two more villages <span class="ul">well worth a visit</span></span> <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">Lynton and Lynmouth</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">One variety <span class="ul">worth a try</span></span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">Green Sausage</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>5.5 Double comparatives - The bigger, the better etc </h3>
<div class="m10">Optionally, we can invert in the second clause of a double comparative. This is not very common:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">The nearer</span> a house is to the city centre, <span class="ft">the higher</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the rent</span>.</li>
<li style="list-style:none;"><span class="nml">or more commonly:</span></li>
<li><span class="bQ"><span class="ft">The nearer</span> a house is to the city centre, <span class="ft">the higher</span> <span class="hl">the rent</span> <span class="lw">(is)</span></span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>5.6 Fronted present and past participle clauses + <em>be</em></h3>
<div class="m10">These are often used to describe the scene, especially in narratives:</div>
<h4>Present participles (<em>-ing</em> forms) describe an action:</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Coming over the hill</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a whole troop of cavalry</span>.</li>
<li>And <span class="ft">bringing up the rear</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">Diamond Boy</span>, being ridden today by Pat Walker.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Not wasting any time</span> <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">Steve and his friends</span>, who went straight to the bar.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Past participle (and passive infinitive) clauses describe a state:</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Left to fend for itself</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a small puppy</span>, no bigger than a rat.<br />
<span class="nml">(= </span><span class="hl">A small puppy</span>, no bigger than a rat, <span class="ft">had been left to fend for itself</span>.<span class="nml">)</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">To be found in almost every village</span> <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">delightful little restaurants, serving delicious local food</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - <span class="bQ">gone</span> is quite commonly used this way, often with words like <span class="bQ">days, time</span>, and often followed by a clause starting with <span class="bQ">when</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Gone</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the quiet old pub we had once known</span>, and <span class="ft">in its place</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">an ugly motel</span>. </li>
<li><span class="ft">Gone</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the chance to say what he really felt</span>. </li>
<li><span class="ft">Long gone</span> <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">the days <span class="ul">when</span> such language was acceptable</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Gone</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the time <span class="ul">when</span> he could just turn up for work when he felt like it</span>. </li>
</ul>
<h4>Past participle / participal adjective phrases used to describe position:</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Situated close to the village green</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">a beautiful old pub</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Almost totally hidden among the bushes</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a marble statue of Eros</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft"><span class="ft">Carefully positioned either side of the fireplace</span> <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">two enormous Chinese porcelain dogs</span>.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Non inverted versions of these last examples would probably begin <span class="bQ">there is/are</span> etc</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>There<span class="lw">'s</span> <span class="hl">a beautiful old pub</span> <span class="ft">situated close to the village green</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - when fronted as participles, active verb forms take an<span class="bQ"> -ing</span> form (present participle); passive verbs take an <span class="bQ">-ed</span> form (past participle):</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>A large bookcase took up most of one wall.<br />
<span class="ft">Taking up most of one wall</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a large bookcase</span>.</li>
<li>A large bookcase had been placed along one wall.<br />
<span class="ft">Placed along one wall</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a large bookcase</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hdr">
<h2>6. Other forms of subject-verb inversion</h2>
<ul class="lsn2">
<li><span class="instr">6.1</span> Fronting subject complements (noun phrases)</li>
<li><span class="instr">6.2</span> In direct speech and newspaper headlines</li>
<li><span class="instr">6.3</span> Fronted expressions after <span class="bQ">also</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">6.4</span> Exclamations with <span class="bQ">how</span> and <span class="bQ">what</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">6.5</span> Fronting noun clauses</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>6.1 Swapping the subject and the subject complement (noun phrase)</h3>
<div class="m10">When a noun phrase follows the verb <span class="bQ">be</span>, it 'renames' or describes the subject in some way, and is called a subject complement. Because the subject and the subject complement refer to one and the same person or thing, they are often intechangeable:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="hl">Paul Jones</span> <span class="lw">is</span> our guest speaker today.<br />
<span class="nml">(inverted)</span> <span class="ft">Our guest speaker</span> today <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">Paul Jones</span></li>
<li><span class="hl">Paris</span> is the capital of France<br />
<span class="nml">(inverted)</span> <span class="ft">The capital of France</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">Paris</span>.</li>
<li><span class="hl">The cost</span> <span class="lw">was</span> our main concern<br />
<span class="nml">(inverted)</span> <span class="ft">Our main concern</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the cost</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - we can't invert when the subject is a pronoun:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="hl">He</span> <span class="lw">is</span> our guest speaker today.<br />
<span class="strike">Our guest speaker today <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">he/him</span></span></li>
<li><span class="hl">That</span> <span class="lw">was</span> our main concern<br />
<span class="strike">Our main concern <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">that</span>.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">At other times, however, inversion doesn't seem to work (at least not usually):</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="hl">Paul Jones</span> <span class="lw">is</span> an engineer.<br />
<span class="strike">An engineer <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">Paul Jones</span></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">but we can sometimes invert this sort of sentence in an informal style:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">A fully qualified engineer</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">young Paul</span> now! Would you believe it? </li>
</ul>
<div class="m01">or when commenting informally on the subject's qualities:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Paul did an amazing job on that bridge contract, didn't he?<br />
Yes, <span class="ft">a bloody good engineer</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">young Paul</span>!</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Fronting with an inverted clause can often be used in two different ways to emphasise two different things:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Who needs a corkscrew when you've got a Swiss army knife?<br />
Yes, <span class="ft">a very useful tool</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the Swiss army knife</span>.<br />
<span class="nml">(referring back to something just mentioned - emphasisis is on <span class="bQ">'a very useful tool'</span>)</span> </li>
<li>When thinking what to take, <span class="ft">a very useful tool</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the Swiss army knife</span>.<br />
<span class="nml">(putting new information to the end - emphasisis is on <span class="bQ">'the Swiss army knife'</span>)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In writing, fronting the subject complement can help the flow from sentence to sentence, and can help with the presentation of information. We find information easier to understand when the topic or known information comes at the beginning of the sentence, and new information at the end:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>When considering where to go for an ecological holiday <span class="ft">one place worth considering</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">Thailand</span>.</li>
<li>Labradors and retrievers are an excellent choice for families with children. <span class="ft">Another child-friendly breed</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the boxer</span>.</li>
<li>Towards the end of the eighteenth century Europe was shaken by a momentous event. <span class="ft">That event</span> <span class="lw">was</span>, of course, <span class="hl">the French Revolution</span>.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Ellipsis</h4>
<div class="m10">In a very informal style, we sometimes front the subject complement and leave out the verb <span class="bQ">be</span> (and articles).</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Funny thing</span>, human nature.<br />
<span class="ft">Strange man</span>, your boss.<br />
<span class="ft">Very interesting subject</span>, quantum mechanics.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Finally, here is an example of a more poetic type of subject / subject complement reversal from a well-known limerick by American writer Dixon Lanier Merritt (1879–1972). This version also has fronting in the third and fourth lines (see Section 5.6):</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="ft">A funny old bird</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the pelican</span>,</li>
<li>His beak can hold more than his <span class="ref" title="= belly (stomach) can">belican</span>,</li>
<li><span class="ft">Food for a week</span></li>
<li><span class="hl">He</span> <span class="lw">can hold</span> in his beak</li>
<li>But I don't know how the <span class="ref" title="= hell he can">helican</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>6.2 In direct speech and in newspaper headlines</h3>
<h4>With direct speech in narratives</h4>
<div class="m10">In narratives, inversion is often used with words like <span class="bQ">say</span> and <span class="bQ">reply</span>, and other verbs suggesting ways of speaking. Inversion doesn't usually happen when the subject is a pronoun.</div>
<ul class="bQ10" style="list-style:none;font-style:normal;">
<li>"What big eyes you have", <span class="lw">said</span> <span class="hl">the little girl</span> to her granny, who was lying in bed, wearing a nightie and oversized nightcap.</li>
<li>"All the better to see you with", <span class="lw">replied</span> <span class="hl">the wolf</span>, for that was who 'granny' really was.</li>
<li>"Shouldn't that be 'with which to eat you'?", <span class="lw">suggested</span> <span class="hl">Miss Hood</span>, who could be a bit of a grammar snob at times.</li>
<li>"Whatever!", <span class="lw">snapped</span> back <span class="hl">the wolf</span>, somewhat fed up with the little girl's pedantry and getting increasingly hungry.</li>
<li>"And what big teeth you've got!", <span class="lw">cried</span> <span class="hl">the girl</span> in wonder, examining the wolf more closely.</li>
<li>"All the better to eat you with", <span class="hl">he</span> <span class="lw">growled</span>, bringing the charade to an end by gobbling her up in one go.</li>
</ul>
<h4>After statements in newspaper headlines</h4>
<div class="m10">A similar structure is sometimes used in newspaper headlines, but without the quotation marks.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Electricity prices bound to rise, <span class="lw">say</span> <span class="hl">energy companies</span>.</li>
<li>Breakthrough in peace talks imminent, <span class="lw">suggests</span> <span class="hl">diplomat</span>.</li>
<li>New treatment for flu available, <span class="lw">announce</span> <span class="hl">health officials</span>.</li>
<li>Government policy not responsible for increased immigration, <span class="lw">affirms</span> <span class="hl"> government minister</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>6.3 Fronted expressions after <em>also</em></h3>
<div class="m10">This construction is probably most common in media reports and adds to something just said. It can occur with prepositional phrases of place:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>The awards ceremony was attended by the President. <span class="ft">Also in the audience</span> <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">many well-known faces from stage and screen</span>.</li>
<li>G8 leaders met yesterday in Bonn. <span class="ft">Also at the meeting</span> <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">representatives of developing countries</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Also in the car at the time of the accident</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the minister's private secretary</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">It can also occur with participle clauses:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Also chosen to represent Britain</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">Peter Dickinson, the sprinter from Doncaster</span>.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Also competing in the bob sleigh race</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a team from Jamaica</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>6.4 Exclamations with <em>how</em> and <em>what</em></h3>
<div class="m10">Inversion is sometimes used in exclamations starting with <span class="bQ">how</span> and <span class="bQ">what</span>. This is quite old-fashioned and again rather literary. </div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li style="list-style:none;"><span class="nml"><span class="bQ">how</span> + adjective phrase + <span class="bQ">be</span> + subject</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">How green</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">my valley</span><br />
<span class="nml">Film directed by John Ford - 1941</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">How beautiful</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the rain</span>!<br />
<span class="nml">Poem by American writer H.W.Longfellow</span>
</li>
<li style="list-style:none;"><span class="nml"><span class="bQ">what</span> + noun phrase + <span class="bQ">be</span> + subject</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">What a piece of work</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">a man</span>!<br />
<span class="nml">(Shakespeare - Hamlet 2:2)</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">What a wonderful thing</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the mail</span>, capable of conveying across continents a warm human hand-clasp.<br />
<span class="nml">(anomymous quote)</span>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>6.5 Noun clauses after introductory <em>it</em></h3>
<div class="m10">We usually use <span class="bQ">to</span>-infinitive and <span class="bQ">that</span> clauses after introductory <span class="bQ">'It is/was/had been'</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>It's rather strange that she should have said that.</li>
<li>It had always been his burning ambition to climb all the mountains in Scotland.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But sometimes these clauses are fronted, for effect or in formal English.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">That she should have said that</span> <span class="lw">is</span> rather strange.</li>
<li><span class="ft">To climb all the mountains in Scotland</span> <span class="lw">had</span> always been his burning ambition.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">We can do the same with some <span class="bQ">wh-</span> clauses</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Why she had left like that</span> <span class="lw">was</span> anyone's guess.<br />
<span class="nml">or - </span> It was anyone's guess why she had left like that.</li>
<li><span class="ft">How she had done it</span> <span class="lw">was</span> a total mystery.<br />
<span class="nml">or - </span>It was a total mystery how she had done it.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">See the next section for fronting object <span class="bQ">wh-</span> clauses. </div>
</div>
<div class="hdr">
<h2>7. Other forms of fronting without inversion</h2>
<ul class="lsn2">
<li><span class="instr">7.1</span> Fronting <span class="bQ">wh-</span> clauses</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.2</span> Fronting infinitives of purpose</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.3</span> Fronting objects</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.4</span> Fronting adjectives + it clauses</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.5</span> Fronting <span class="bQ">as</span> and <span class="bQ">though</span> in clauses of concession</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.6</span> Fronting and echoing a previously mentioned verb</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.7</span> Detached fronted verb phrases</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.8</span> Detached fronted subjects and objects</li>
<li><span class="instr">7.9</span> Introductory phrases <span class="bQ">'the thing is'</span> etc</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>7.1 Fronting object <em>wh-</em> clauses</h3>
<div class="m10">We've just seen (6.5) how we can front <span class="bQ">wh-</span> clauses following introductory <span class="bQ">it</span>. We can sometimes do the same when the <span class="bQ">wh-</span> clause acts as the object: </div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">What he's up to</span>, I can't imagine.<br />
<span class="nml">(normal word order - <span class="bQ">I can't imagine what he's up to.</span>)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Some more examples:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">What books she has</span>, she keeps in the attic.</li>
<li><span class="ft">How he managed to persuade the boss</span> we never discovered.</li>
<li><span class="ft">What happens next</span> you'll just have to wait and find out.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">And what I suppose is a fronted object complement:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Where they've got to</span>, I've no idea.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>7.2 Fronting infinitives of purpose</h3>
<div class="m10">When <span class="bQ">to</span> means <span class="bQ">in order to</span>, we can sometimes front the <span class="bQ">to</span> clause when we want to emphasise the reason for doing something:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>He's going to France on an exchange visit (in order) to improve his French.<br />
<span class="ft">To improve his French</span>, he's going to France on an exchange visit.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">A couple more examples:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li><span class="ft">To earn a bit of extra cash</span>, she's taken a part-time job.<br />
<span class="ft">To get the best results from this product</span>, clean it occasionally with a damp cloth.<br />
<span class="ft">To get it finished more quickly</span>, he got some help from some friends.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">This doesn't always work. It wouldn't really work, for example, with these sentences with <span class="bQ">come</span> and <span class="bQ">go</span> where, although there is an infinitive of purpose, we wouldn't normally use <span class="bQ">in order to</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li>She's gone to the shops to buy some food.<br />
<span class="nml">NOT</span> <span class="strike">To buy some food, she's gone to the shops.</span></li>
<li>They're coming to fix the fridge this afternoon.<br />
<span class="nml">NOT</span> <span class="strike">To fix the fridge, they're coming this afternoon.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>7.3 Fronting objects</h3>
<div class="m10">Sometimes we front the object when it has just been mentioned or refers to something we're already talking about:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li>She got two presents for her birthday, a bicycle and a games console. <span class="ft">The bicycle </span>she got from her mother, and <span class="ft">the games console</span> from her father.</li>
<li>Of her three sisters, she got on well with the two older ones, but <span class="ft">the youngest</span> she hardly ever spoke to.</li>
<li>For most of the time we stayed on the coast. <span class="ft">Our last week</span> we spent in the mountains.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In the limerick about the pelican we came across the lines <span class="bQ">food for a week he could hold in his beak</span>, where <span class="bQ">food for a week</span> is a fronted object. We can also do something similar in less poetic contexts:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>OK. <span class="ft">That much</span> I understand. My problem lies with the next bit.</li>
<li><span class="ft">This last point</span> I 'll discuss in more detail a bit later.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">And sometimes in exclamations:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">People like that</span> I just can't stand!</li>
<li><span class="ft">A wonderful summer</span> we're having!</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">We can also front a few dependent preposition phrases:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">To this list of nations </span> can be added France and Germany.</li>
<li><span class="ft">From this category</span> we've excluded all those who left school at sixteen.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>7.4 Fronting adjective complements with pronoun + <em>be</em> + <em>but</em> ...</h3>
<div class="m10">Fronting here usually echoes or refers back to an adjective already mentioned, and is used for emphasis or effect:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>They said it was elegant and rather expensive. <span class="ft">Expensive</span> it certainly was, but I think calling it elegant was going a bit far.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Rich</span> they may be, but <span class="ft">generous</span> they certainly aren't.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>7.5 Fronting with <em>as</em> or <em>though</em></h3>
<div class="m10">We can use fronting with concession clauses (clauses starting <span class="bQ">although, though, even though, while</span>), but only with <span class="bQ">though</span> or <span class="bQ">as</span>.</div>
<h4 class="instr">With adjectives and adverbs</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li class="m10">Although the exam was difficult, he passed it easily.<br />
<span class="ft">Difficult though</span> the exam was, he passed it easily.</li>
<li>While he tried very hard, he just couldn't do it.<br />
<span class="ft">Hard as</span> he tried, he couldn't do it.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In the second of each pair of those sentences, the adjective or adverb has been fronted and followed by <span class="bQ">though</span> or <span class="bQ">as</span>. Fronting like this is sometimes used with linking verbs such as <span class="bQ">be, seem, appear, become, look, sound</span> etc. This is done for effect or emphasis.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="ft">Talented though/as</span> she is, she didn't get the first prize.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though she's talented.)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ft">Smart though/as</span> she appears, she was unable to answer the question.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though she appears smart)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ft">Surprising though/as</span> it sounds, I've never been to London.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though it sounds amazing)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">With verbs</h4>
<div class="m10">Note that with simple tenses of verbs other than <span class="bQ">be</span>, we need to add <span class="bQ">do/does/did</span> (although use with verbs other than <span class="bQ">be</span> is less common than constructions like the one in the first example).</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="ft">Try as he might</span>, he just couldn't get the car to start.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though he tried very hard)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ft">Fail though she did</span> this time, she didn't give up hope of passing eventually.<br />
<span class="normal">(although she failed this time)</span>.<br />
</li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Nouns</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li class="m10"><span class="ft">Idiot though</span> I may be, I'm not that stupid.<br />
<span class="normal">(although I may be an idiot)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Fronting with <em>that</em> + <em>be</em></h4>
<div class="m10">We can do something similar with <span class="bQ">that</span> and the verb <span class="bQ">be</span> in a feww exclamations, but this is not very common. In American English only Noun phrases can be treated this way, but in British English we can theoretically do it with adjectives as well (but this is even less common).</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="ft">Fool that</span> I am, I nevertheless managed to get everything right.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though I'm a fool)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ft">Rich that </span> they are, buying the castle was beyond even their means. <span class="normal"><br />
(even though they are rich) (British English)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">NB. Causal meanings</h4>
<div class="m10">Note that fronted expressions with <span class="bQ">as</span> and <span class="bQ">that</span> (but not <span class="bQ">though</span>) can also be used with the opposite sense, with a causal meaning rather than a concessive one.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="ft">Late as</span> I was, I decided to take a taxi.<br />
<span class="normal">(because I was late)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ft">Smart as</span> she is, she passed the exam with flying colours.<br />
<span class="normal">(because she is smart)</li></span>
<li class="m10"><span class="ft">Idiot that</span> I am, I forgot to bring any money.<br />
<span class="normal">(because I'm an idiot)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>7.6 Fronting and echoing a previously mentioned verb</h3>
<div class="m10">Note how only the main part of the verb (and any object) is fronted. In simple tenses we need to add <span class="bQ">do/does/did</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Things need to change, and <span class="ft">change</span> they undoubtedly will.</li>
<li>She said she would finish the report on time, and <span class="ft">finish it</span> she has.</li>
<li>He needed to sit and think, and <span class="ft">sit and think</span> he did.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>7.7 Detached fronted verb phrases</h3>
<div class="m10">These are sometimes used in informal spoken language to comment on something:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Certainly drives a hard bargain</span>, your boss.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Keeps a tidy shop</span>, your aunt.</li>
<li><span class="ft">Will go far</span>, that young man.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Also in an informal style, we sometimes use a subject-auxililary form after a full clause. This can also be inverted (but not with pronouns, and I don't think it works with continuous tenses):</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>He drives a hard bargain, <span class="hl">your boss</span> <span class="lw">does</span><br />
He drives a hard bargain, <span class="lw">does</span> <span class="hl">your boss</span>.</li>
<li>He's travelled a lot, <span class="hl">my dad</span> <span class="lw">has</span>.<br />
He's travelled a lot, <span class="lw">has</span> <span class="hl">my dad</span>.</li>
<li>She can make a good cake, <span class="hl">your mum</span> <span class="lw">can</span>.<br />
She can make a good cake, <span class="lw">can</span> <span class="hl">your mum</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>7.8 Detached fronted subjects and objects</h3>
<div class="m10">This quite common in informal spoken English, where we 'detach' and front a subject or object. Often we repeat it with a pronoun, sometimes we miss words out (ellipsis):</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="nml">Subject</span><br />
This book you gave me, <span class="ul">it</span>'s just won a prize.<br />
That man I was talking about, <span class="ul">that</span>'s him over there.<br />
These roses, don't <span class="ul">they</span> smell wonderful?</li>
<li><span class="nml">Object</span><br /><span class="ft">Peter and Mary</span>, should we invite <span class="ul">them</span>?<br />
<span class="ft">What we were talking about earlier</span>, I've been thinking <span class="nml">(<em>about <span class="ul">it</span></em>)</span><br />
<span class="ft">But when to sell</span>, <span class="ul">that</span>'s the question.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Sometimes we can put the pronoun clause first:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft"><span class="ul">It</span>'s just won a prize</span>, this book you gave me.<br />
Don't <span class="ft"><span class="ul">they</span> smell wonderful</span>, these roses?<br />
Should we invite <span class="ul">them</span>, Peter and Mary?<br />
</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">We don't usually do this with pronoun subjects, except occasionally for <span class="bQ">me</span> and <span class="bQ">myself</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Me</span>, <span class="ul">I</span> haven't thought about it much.<br />
<span class="ft">Myself</span>, I'd take the chance.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">When fronting pronouns to refer to somebody else like this, we use object pronouns, even when referring to the subject.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ft">Her</span>! You must be joking.<br />
<span class="ft">Him</span>! He hasn't got a chance.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>7.9 Introductory phrases <em>The thing / point / question is</em> etc</h3>
<div class="m10">We sometimes preface a comment with phrases like this with nouns like <span class="bQ">thing, point, question, truth, problem, trouble</span> etc, often to soften something rather negative or to signal that what we are going to say is important. They are usually used with <span class="bQ">the</span> and <span class="bQ">be</span>, but other combinations are sometimes possible:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>I wonder if you could pay. <span class="ft">The thing is</span>, I've left my wallet in the office.</li>
<li><span class="ft">My point being</span>, they haven't accepted our proposal yet.</li>
<li><span class="ft">The trouble is</span>, we don't know what the final result will be.</li>
<li><span class="ft">The question remains</span>, can we afford not to accept their offer?</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv25">
<div class="hdr"><h3>Summary of types of inversion</h3></div>
<div class="m10">Colour coding: <span class="ft">fronted expression</span> - <span class="lw">auxiliary / verb</span> - <span class="hl">subject</span></div>
<table class="grammarTable" id="sumTable" style="margin:10px auto;">
<tr style="margin:10px 0;"><th colspan="4" class="instr" style="margin:10px 0;">Subject-auxilary inversion - obligatory, no emphasis involved</th></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1.1</td><td>Question forms</td><td><p><span class="lw">Have</span> <span class="hl">you</span> finished?</p><br /><p>You're Mark, <span class="lw">aren't</span> <span class="hl">you</span>?</p><br /><p>I came first. - <span class="lw">Did</span> <span class="hl">you</span>?</p></td><td>Inversion is always obligatory</td></tr>
<tr style="border-bottom:none;"><td class="tdNum" style="border-bottom:none;">1.2</td><td style="border-bottom:none;">After <span class="bQ">so</span> and <span class="bQ">neither / nor</span></td><td style="border-bottom:none;"></td><td style="border-bottom:none;"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>Same way agreement</td><td><p>So <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">I</span></p><br /><p>Neither <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">she</span></td><td>Inversion compulsory after <span class="bQ">so, neither, nor.</span></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>Same way coordination</td><td><p>He can swim very well and so <span class="lw">can</span> <span class="hl">his brother</span>.</p><br />
<p>She didn't come and neither <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">her sister</span>.</p></td><td>Inversion compulsory after <span class="bQ">so, neither, nor.</span></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td><span class="bQ">nor</span> + clause</td><td><p>He hasn't seen it and nor <span class="lw">does</span> <span class="hl">he</span> want to.</p></td><td>Inversion compulsory after <span class="bQ">nor.</span></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td><span class="bQ">neither ... nor ...</span></td><td><p>She has neither been there nor <span class="lw">has</span> <span class="hl">she</span> any desire to go.</p><br /><p><span class="ft">Neither</span> <span class="lw">has</span> <span class="hl">he</span> written nor <span class="lw">has</span> <span class="hl">he</span> phoned.</p></td><td>Inversion compulsory after <span class="bQ">nor</span>. Inversion of first part is also optionally possible.</td></tr>
<tr style="margin:10px 0;"><th colspan="4" class="instr" style="margin:10px 0;">Subject-auxilary inversion - optional, emphasis usually involved</th></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2.1</td><td>Negative inversion<br />
After fronted negative and restrictive adverbials</td><td><p><span class="ft">Never before</span> <span class="lw">had</span> <span class="hl">it</span> rained so much in one day.</p><br /><p><span class="ft">Only then</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">she</span> understand what I was trying to say.</p><br /><p><span class="ft">Little</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="hl">they</span> suspect what would happen next.</p></td><td>Fronting the adverbial is optional, but if used, inversion obligatory</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2.2</td><td>Inversion in conditionals</td><td><p><span class="lw">Should</span> <span class="hl">I</span> be late, start without me</p><br />
<p><span class="lw">Were</span> <span class="hl">he</span> to ask me, I'd accept like a shot</p><br />
<p><span class="lw">Had</span> <span class="hl">I</span> not already got one, I'd be very tempted.</p></td><td>Inversion completely optional</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2.3</td><td>Follow-on <span class="bQ">as</span> + clause</td><td><p>She thinks it's unlikely, as <span class="lw">does</span> <span class="hl">her colleague</span>.</p></td><td>Inversion optional</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2.4</td><td>After <span class="bQ">than</span> in comparatives</td><td><p>This year's sales are better than <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="hl">last year's</span>.</p></td><td>Inversion optional and rather rare</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2.5</td><td>Question order in exclamatives</td><td><p>Wow! <span class="lw">Was</span> <span class="hl">that exam</span> hard!</p></td><td>Inversion optional</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2.6</td><td>Hopes and wishes with <span class="bQ">may</span></td><td><p><span class="lw">May</span> <span class="hl">all your dreams</span> come true!</p></td><td>Inversion obligatory and rather literary</td></tr>
<tr style="margin:20px 0 10px 0;"><th colspan="4" class="instr">Fronted <em>so</em> and <em>such</em> <span class="nml"> - fronting optional, but if used, inversion is obligatory</span></th></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3.1</td><td><span class="bQ">So</span> + adjective</td><td><p><span class="ft">So exhausted</span> <span class="lw">were</span> <span class="lw">the children</span>, they were put straight to bed.</p></td><td><br />
Quite literary.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3.2</td><td><span class="bQ">So</span> + adverb</td><td><p><span class="ft">So badly</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="lw">he</span> sing, he was booed off the stage.</p></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3.3</td><td><span class="bQ">Such</span> + <span class="bQ">be</span> + noun phrase + <span class="bQ">that</span></td><td><p><span class="ft">Such</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the state of the roads</span> that driving anywhere was an adventure.</p></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3.4</td><td><span class="bQ">So much/little did ... that</span></td><td><p><span class="ft">So little</span> <span class="lw">did</span> <span class="lw">he</span> care, he didn't even contact her.</p></td><td>
Literary and now rather rare.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3.5</td><td><span class="bQ">Such</span> following on from something already stated</td><td><p><span class="ft">And such</span> <span class="lw">has</span> always been the case.</p></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3.6</td><td>Some expressions with <span class="bQ">so</span> and <span class="bQ">such</span> using inversion</td><td><p><span class="ft">So</span> <span class="lw">be</span> <span class="hl">it</span>.</p><br />
<p><span class="ft">Such</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">life</span>!</p></td><td>Set expressions</td></tr>
<tr style="margin:20px 0 10px 0;"><th colspan="3" class="instr">4. Fronted adverbs and adverbials</th></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4.1</td><td>After fronted <span class="bQ">here</span> and <span class="bQ">there</span> (used adverbally)</td><td><p>Here <span class="lw">comes</span> <span class="hl">our train</span> now</p><br /><p>Look! There <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">the dogs</span>, by the bushes </p></td><td>Inversion obligatory for nouns but not used with pronouns</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4.2</td><td>Other common expressions with fronted adverbs</td><td><p><span class="ft">Here</span> you go</p><br /><p>And <span class="ft">off</span> they went</p></td><td>Both fronting and inversion are optional</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4.3</td><td>With verbs of position after prepositional phrases of place</td><td><p><span class="ft">In front of the shop </span><span class="lw">were standing</span> <span class="hl">a lot of people</span>.</p></td><td>Both fronting and inversion are optional</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4.4</td><td>With verbs of movement after prepositional phrases of direction</td><td><p><span class="ft">Up the stairs</span> <span class="lw">came </span><span class="hl">a noisy group of children</span>.</p></td><td>Both fronting and inversion are optional</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4.5</td><td>Prepositional phrases with verbs of position and movement - without inversion</td><td><p><span class="ft">On the floor</span> a child sat quietly reading.</p><br />
<p><span class="ft">Round the corner</span> they came, lots of them.</p></td><td>Fronting optional</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4.6</td><td>Prepositional phrases of position and movement with other verbs - no inversion</td><td><p><span class="ft">Behind the sofa</span> a cat was playing with some wool.</p><br />
<p><span class="ft">Round the corner</span> they came, lots of them.</p></td><td>Fronting optional</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4.7</td><td>Fronting other adverbs and adverbials</td><td><p><span class="ft">Slowly</span>, he trudged up the hill</p><br />
<p><span class="ft">At six o'clock</span>, the church bells started to ring out the Angelus. </p></td><td>Fronting optional</td></tr>
<tr style="margin:20px 0 10px 0;"><th colspan="3" class="instr">5. Fronting and inversion with adjectives</th></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5.1</td><td>Fronted adjectives</td><td><p></p></td><td>Completely optional and rather rare</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5.2</td><td>Fronted comparatives and superlatives</td><td><p><span class="ft">Better still</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">his second book</span>.</p><br /><p><span class="ft">Largest of all seabirds</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the albatross.</span></p></td><td>More common. Fronting optional, but if used, inversion obligatory</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5.3</td><td>Fronted <span class="bQ">not so</span> + adjective / adverb </td><td><p><span class="ft">Not so bright</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the guy who tried to jump across the river</span>.</p></td><td>Fronting optional, but if used, inversion obligatory</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5.4</td><td>Expressions with fronted <span class="bQ">worth</span></td><td><p><span class="ft">Well worth a visit</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">the fourteenth century castle</span>.</p><br /><p><span class="ft">Also worth a look</span> <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">the old city walls</span>.</p></td><td>Fronting optional, but if used, inversion obligatory</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5.5</td><td>Double comparatives - <span class="bQ">the ... the ...</span></td><td><p>The more you pester him, the less <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">he</span> likely do anything.</p></td><td>Inversion completely optional, and rather rare</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5.6</td><td>Fronted present and past participles</td><td><p><span class="ft">Walking slowly up the hill</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">an old man</span>.</p><br /><p><span class="ft">Believed by many</span> <span class="lW">is</span> <span class="hl">the story of the Loch Ness monster</span>.</p><br /><p><span class="ft">Long gone</span> <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">the days when this was fashionable.</span></p></td><td>Fronting optional, but if used, inversion obligatory</td></tr>
<tr style="margin:20px 0 10px 0;"><th colspan="3" class="instr">5. Other forms of subject-verb inversion</th></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6.1</td><td>Reversing subject and subject complement</td><td><span class="ft">The person to ask</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">Peter</span>.</td><td>Totally optional</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6.2</td><td>To report direct speech</td><td><p>"No doubt we'll meet again," <span class="lw">said</span> <span class="hl">the young man</span></p><br /><p>Bank robbers escape, <span class="lw">admit</span> <span class="hl">police</span>.</p></td><td>Totally optional</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6.3</td><td>Fronted expressions after <span class="bQ">also</span><td><p><span class="ft">Also in the picture</span> <span class="lw">are</span> <span class="hl">some tourists</span></p></td><td>Fronting and inversion optional</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6.4</td><td>Exclamations with <span class="bQ">how</span> and <span class="bQ">what</span></td><td><p><span class="ft">How small</span> <span class="lw">is</span> <span class="hl">man</span>!</p></td><td>Fronting and inversion optional</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6.5</td><td>Fronted noun clauses</td><td><p><span class="ft">To win the race</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">a dream come true</span>!</p><br /><p><span class="ft">That she should feel that way</span> <span class="lw">came</span> as a bit of a shock.</p></td><td>Fronting with inversion optional - introductory <span class="bQ">it</span> more common.</td></tr>
<tr style="margin:20px 0 10px 0;"><th colspan="4" class="instr">7. Fronting without inversion <span class="nml">- fronting optional in all cases</span></th></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7.1</td><td>Fronting object <span class="bQ">wh-</span> clauses</td><td><p><span class="ft">What happens after that</span>, you'll just have to wait and see.</p></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7.2</td><td>Fronting infinitives of purpose</td><td><p><span class="ft">To make sure he wasn't late</span> he took a taxi.</p></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7.3</td><td>Fronting objects</td><td><p>He only met her quite recently, but <span class="ft">her husband</span> he'd known for some years.</p><br /><p><span class="ft">Great weather</span> we're having!</p></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7.4</td><td>Fronting adjective complements</td><td><p><span class="ft">Committed</span> it may have been, but it was hardly a barrel of laughs.</p></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7.5</td><td>Fronting with <span class="bQ">as</span> or <span class="bQ">though</span></td><td><p><span class="ft">Exciting as</span> it was,I don't think I'll be doing it again in a hurry.</p></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7.6</td><td>Fronting and echoing a previously mentioned verb</td><td><p>He needed to act fast, and <span class="ft">act fast</span> he did.</p></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7.7</td><td>Detached fronted verb phrases</td><td><p><span class="ft">Makes a good cake</span>, your mum (does).</p></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7.8</td><td>Detached fronted verb subjects and objects</td><td><p><span class="ft">This film you were talking about</span>, where's it showing?</p></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7.9</td><td>Introductory phrases <span class="bQ">The thing / point / question is</span> etc</td><td><p><span class="ft">The thing is</span>, if we don't leave now, we'll be late.</p></td><td></td></tr>
</table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Print this table" onclick="printExercise(25)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"></div>
</div>
<div class="hdr">
<h2><span class="instr">A few graphs, figures, examples etc</span></h2>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4><em>Were I you, I would ...</em></h4>
<div class="m10">I have seen some websites give <span class="bQ">Were I you, I would ...</span> as an example of conditional inversion, but we are very unlikely to say it, especially as <span class="bQ">'If I were you'</span> is such a standard expression. There are 152 instances of <span class="bQ">'If I were you'</span> at the British National Corpus, and none at all of <span class="bQ">'Were I you'</span>. And this is the situation at Ngram (<span class="bQ">'If I were in your'</span> is for <span class="bQ">'If I were in your shoes / position'</span> etc - Ngram has a five word maximum):</div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=Were+I+you%2CIf+I+were+you%2CWere+I+in+your%2CIf+I+were+in+your&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2CWere%20I%20you%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CIf%20I%20were%20you%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CWere%20I%20in%20your%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CIf%20I%20were%20in%20your%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4>Inverted conditionals at Ngram</h4>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=Were+he+*%2CShould+he+*%2CHad+he+*&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t2%3B%2CWere%20he%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3BWere%20he%20to%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BWere%20he%20not%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BWere%20he%20a%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BWere%20he%20alive%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BWere%20he%20and%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BWere%20he%20in%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BWere%20he%20living%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BWere%20he%20the%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BWere%20he%20here%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BWere%20he%20able%3B%2Cc0%3B.t2%3B%2CShould%20he%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3BShould%20he%20be%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BShould%20he%20not%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BShould%20he%20have%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BShould%20he%20go%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BShould%20he%20fail%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BShould%20he%20take%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BShould%20he%20do%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BShould%20he%20tell%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BShould%20he%20try%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BShould%20he%20make%3B%2Cc0%3B.t2%3B%2CHad%20he%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3BHad%20he%20been%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20he%20not%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20he%20lived%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20he%20done%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20he%20known%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20he%20ever%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20he%20gone%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20he%20really%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20he%20had%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20he%20seen%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=450 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4><em>Had I to do something</em></h4>
<div class="m10">It <span class="ul">is</span> possible to invert <span class="bQ">'If I had to ...'</span>, but it's becoming increasingly rare:</div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=Had+I+to+*%2CHad+you+to+*%2CHad+he+to+*%2CHad+she+to+*%2CHad+we+to+*&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t2%3B%2CHad%20I%20to%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3BHad%20I%20to%20choose%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20I%20to%20do%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20I%20to%20live%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20I%20to%20give%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20I%20to%20make%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20I%20to%20write%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20I%20to%20guid%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20I%20to%20deal%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20I%20to%20begin%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20I%20to%20besiege%3B%2Cc0%3B.t2%3B%2CHad%20he%20to%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3BHad%20he%20to%20do%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20he%20to%20choose%3B%2Cc0%3B.t2%3B%2CHad%20we%20to%20*%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3BHad%20we%20to%20deal%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20we%20to%20choose%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20we%20to%20depend%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20we%20to%20count%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20we%20to%20do%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BHad%20we%20to%20introduce%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=300 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4>Never ...</h4>
<div class="m10">These figures from the British National Corpus show how inverted <span class="bQ">Never</span> is most often used with perfect tenses.The numbers in brackets refer to examples followed by <span class="bQ">so</span> or <span class="bQ">such</span>. So, out of a total of 40 examples, 34 were in a perfect tense, of which 22 were followed by <span class="bQ">so</span> or <span class="bQ">such</span>:</div>
<table class="grammarTable" style="margin:10px auto;">
<tr><td>Never have I</td><td>14 (10)</td><td rowspan="11">
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="nml">present perfect - 17 (12)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">past perfect - 17 (10)</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">simple present - 0</span></li>
<li><span class="nml">simple past - 6</span></li>
</ul>
</td></tr>
<tr><td>Never have we</td><td>2 (1)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Never has he / she</td><td>1 (1)</td></tr>
<tr><td style="" colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td>Never had I</td><td>0</td></tr>
<tr><td>Never had we</td><td>1 (1)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Never had he / she</td><td>15 (8)</td></tr>
<tr><td style="" colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td>Never do I</td><td>(2)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Never does he / she</td><td>0</td> </tr>
<tr><td>Never did he / she</td><td>6</td> </tr>
</table>
<div class="m10">See also the appendix after the links</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4><em>So</em> + adjective + inverted <em>be</em></h4>
<div class="m10">Here are some more examples from around the web:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li><span class="ft">So furious</span> <span class="lw">had been</span> <span class="hl">the gusts</span>, that high buildings in town had had the lead stripped off their roofs<br />
<span class="nml">Dickens - Great Expectation</span>s</li>
<li><span class="ft">So great</span> <span class="lw">had been</span> <span class="hl">the expense of his tour</span> that, even had he won, it would not have enriched him<br />
<span class="nml">Around the World in Eighty Days</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">So great</span> <span class="lw">had been</span> <span class="hl">the power exercised by Louis XIV</span> and <span class="ft">so triumphalist</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the culture he created at Versailles</span> that a reaction was inevitable sooner or later.<br />
<span class="nml">History Today</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">So grateful</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the Pope</span> that he declared Charlemagne "Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire" in 800 AD<br />
<span class="nml">Answers.com</span></li>
<li><span class="ft">So great</span> <span class="lw">was</span> <span class="hl">the devastation brought about by the war</span> that estimates put the reduction of population in the German states at about 25% to 40%<br />
<span class="nml">Wikipedia</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4><em>Especially</em> and <em>particularly</em></h4>
<div class="m10">This chart shows the adjectives most commonly used after <span class="bQ">Especially</span> and <span class="bQ">Particularly</span> in the Ngram corpus: </div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=Especially+*+was%2CParticularly+*+was&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t2%3B%2CEspecially%20*%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3BEspecially%20important%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BEspecially%20noteworthy%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BEspecially%20it%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BEspecially%20significant%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BEspecially%20notable%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BEspecially%20interesting%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BEspecially%20he%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BEspecially%20there%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BEspecially%20striking%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BEspecially%20strong%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B.t2%3B%2CParticularly%20*%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3BParticularly%20important%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BParticularly%20significant%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BParticularly%20noteworthy%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BParticularly%20interesting%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BParticularly%20striking%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BParticularly%20it%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BParticularly%20notable%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BParticularly%20impressive%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BParticularly%20noticeable%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BParticularly%20he%20was%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=300 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="m10">Here are a couple of links to Netspeak to see common collocations:</div>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.netspeak.org/#query=particularly+%253F+was">particularly ... was ...</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.netspeak.org/#query=especially+%253F+was">especially ... was ...</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4><em>Not so ...</em></h4>
<div class="m10">This graph shows the adjectives most commonly used after <span class="bQ">Not so</span> in the Ngram corpus: </div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=Not+so+*+was&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t2%3B%2CNot%20so%20*%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%2Cs0%3B%3BNot%20so%20fortunate%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BNot%20so%20much%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BNot%20so%20lucky%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BNot%20so%20easy%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BNot%20so%20successful%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BNot%20so%20happy%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BNot%20so%20easily%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BNot%20so%20pleasant%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BNot%20so%20simple%20was%3B%2Cc0%3B%3BNot%20so%20funny%20was%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
</div>
<div class="hdr">
<h3>Related posts and links</h3>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4>Exercises and related posts</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/01/making-sense-of-negative-inversion.html">Making sense of negative inversion, hopefully</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/05/negative-inversion-practice-exercises.html">Negative inversion - practice exercises</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2013/01/inversion-in-conditionals.html">Inversion in conditionals</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2014/10/fronting-exercises-with-bit-of-subject.html">Fronting exercises (with a bit of subject-verb inversion)</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/10/tag-questions-and-short-answers.html">Tag questions and short answers</a></li>
</ul>
<h3>Links</h3>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.grammaring.com/inversion">Grammaring</a> - inversion</li>
<li><a href="http://www.testmagic.com/Knowledge_Base/lists/grammar/inversion.htm">TestMagic</a> 18 types of inversion (but some strange examples)</li>
<li><a href="http://esl.about.com/od/advancedgrammar/a/inversion.htm">About.com</a> - inversion</li>
<li><a href="http://usefulenglish.ru/miscellany/inversion">Useful English</a> - inversion</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inversion_%28linguistics%29#Inversion_in_English">Wikipedia</a> - inversion</li>
<li><a href="http://www.searchquotes.com/search/May_All_Your/">'May all your' expressions</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/may-you-live-in-interesting-times.html">Phrases.or</a> - May you live in interesting times</li>
<li><a href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/such-that">Oxford Dictionaries</a> - 'such that'</li>
<li><a href="http://www.eltbase.com/notes.php?id=538">ELT Base</a> - fronting</li>
<li><a href="http://languagetools.info/grammarpedia/dislocation.htm">Grammarpedia</a> - dislocation, preposing and postposing</li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=jBhs1JdPJQUC&pg=PA234">Introducing English Grammar</a>, Kersti Borjars, Kate Burridge (fronting)</li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=oZ03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA168&dq=%22as+do+i%22+inversion&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ObIhVN-1HYSGywOvuYKwCg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22as%20do%20i%22%20inversion&f=false">An Historical Syntax of the English Language</a>, Frederik Theodor Visser (as do I)</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="hdr">
<h3>Appendix - <em>never do I</em> - a case study</h3></div>
<h4>An example of unnatural inversion</h4>
<div class="m10">There's one website that gives a very useful set of inversion patterns, but some of the sentences they use to illustrate them strike me as being somewhat unnatural. Here's one example - <span class="bQ">'Never do I sleep'</span></div>
<div class="m10">This is given as an example of negative inversion. But inversion with <span class="bQ">never</span> (especially in the first person) is usually used with a perfect tense (or occasionally past simple), and even then <span class="bQ">'Never have I slept'</span> wouldn't be any better. </div>
<div class="m10">This is because inversion after <span class="bQ">never</span> is usually used to express someone's reaction to the uniqueness of some experience or other, often with <span class="bQ">so</span> or <span class="bQ">such</span>, or an emotional reaction or comment on a situation. So <span class="bQ">'Never have I slept so well'</span>, or <span class="bQ">'Never have I has such a good night's sleep'</span>, for example, would sound rather better.</div>
<div class="m10">Examples of <span class="bQ">'never do I'</span> are rare. I could find none at all at the British National Corpus, but there are a handful at Google Books. The majority of these used transitive verbs; intransitive ones like <span class="bQ">sleep</span> followed by nothing being incredibly rare, and more or less confined to poetry. Here's one (with a linking verb) from Horatio Nelson to his mistress, written in 1787:</div>
<ul class="bQl10">
<li>I anticipate with pleasure our meeting; for <span class="ft">never</span> <span class="lw">do</span> <span class="hl">I</span> feel truly happy when separated from you</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">The language is rather old fashioned, but shows how inversion with <span class="bQ">never</span> works better with a relatively long verb phrase. The lesson being: we have to be a bit careful when we invert.</div>
<h4>At Google Books</h4>
<div class="m10">Google Books Search for <span class="bQ">"never do I"</span>: the majority were false hits like <span class="bQ">"... never do. I ..."</span>. Out of the first 100 instances, only 16 were real inversions. Of these five are from the 19th century or earlier, two from poetry and one from somebody speaking in dialect, leaving eight from modern prose, few of which sound particularly natural to me.</div>
<h4>19th century or earlier</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>I anticipate with pleasure our meeting ; for never do I feel truly happy when separated from you<br />
<span class="nml">Nelson 1787 - <em>The Life and Services of Horatio Viscount Nelson</em>, James Stanier Clarke, John McArthur, 2010</span></li>
<li>Never do I quit your Presence without the most passionate Regret.—Never do I approach you without the Raptures of a first Enjoyment<br />
<span class="nml"><em>Fantomina</em>, Eliza Haywood, 1725</span></li>
<li>Never do I desire it — never, my dear Fanny, I promise you<br />
<span class="nml"><em>The clandestine marriage</em>, a comedy; by G. Colman and D. Garrick 1818</span></li>
<li>I had to pass through the market-place on my return to the ship, and never do I remember to have heard such howling and barking, even in a kennel, as I experienced in passing to our boats<br />
<span class="nml">The Museum of Foreign Literature, Science and Art,1831</span></li>
<li>Never do I see that venerable dome of your minster from the forest, but I curse its form,<br />
<em>The Avenger</em>, by Thomas de Quincy, 1838</li>
</ul>
<h4>Poetry</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Never do I want to close my eyes and not be able to envision you, or open my eyes and you are not there to see.<br />
<span class="nml">from <em>Emotional Doors: A Collection of Poems</em> by Dawin Antonio Welch, 2010</span></li>
<li>Never was I born. Never do I die.<br />
<span class="nml">from a poem by A.K.Mukhopahyay 1987</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>Dialect etc</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Never do I be a hearin of oinkers attackin a village afore and there do be a plenty o' dirt farmers between yonder blasted hills and ye home<br />
<span class="nml"><em>New Beginnings: Book One, a Life Forever Changed</em>, Micheal J. Smith - 2011</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>The rest</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Never do I neglect my chores. Never has Stew done them for me. It has never quite come to that<br />
<span class="nml"><em>The Cabin on Sawmill Creek: A Western Walden</em>, Mary Jo Churchwell - 1997</span></li>
<li>Almost never are these essays commissioned, and almost never do I know where, if anywhere, they are going to be published.<br />
<span class="nml">Physicists on Wall Street and Other Essays on Science and Socirty, Jeremy Bernstein - 2008</span></li>
<li>Never do I need to long for you, because you have never left me.<br />
<span class="nml"><em>Pondering the Reflections of Life and the Reflections of Love</em>, Patricia Louise - 2011</span></li>
<li>Never do I get the gift I wanted most.<br />
<span class="nml"><em>Pure Poetry: A Novel</em>, Binnie Kirshenbaum - 2008</span></li>
<li>Never do I pop above the jungle floor canopy. Never do I move too fast, jerkily in any way ...
<br /><span class="nml"><em>Re'enev</em>, Mike Maranhas - 2006</span></li>
<li>And never do I know that fear again. And so it was.<br />
<span class="nml"><em>Bittersweet: A Candid Love Story</em>, Helen Nebeker - 2006</span></li>
<li>Never do I question, and why? Because it's how I was programmed by my handlers<br />
<span class="nml"><em>Merifor</em>, Justin Caron - 2011</span></li>
<li> I emphasize that never do I claim to be "objective," nor do I reproach someone for not being "objective," with very good reason<br />
<span class="nml"><em>Challenges</em>, Serge Lang - 1998</span></li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-7569187064285103452014-08-31T13:19:00.000+02:002015-07-12T15:40:07.624+02:00Exploring concession and contrast<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">In this post we look at the difference between concession and simple contrast, and at the various words and expressions we can use to express concession and contrast. As well as information about these, there are ten exercises to give you plenty of practice in using them.</div>
<h3 class="instr">Words and expressions used to express concession</h3>
<h4 class="instr">The Basics</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>although, though, even though</li>
<li>despite, in spite of</li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Getting more advanced</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>while, whilst, whereas</li>
<li>nevertheless, however, even so, all the same</li>
<li>much as</li>
<li>no matter how / what etc</li>
<li>however, whatever, whoever etc</li>
<li>adjective + as / though</li>
<li>but still, but even so, but all the same</li>
<li>(and) yet</li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Even more exotic</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>when, if, albeit</li>
<li>may ... but</li>
<li><span class="normal">Contrastive emphasis with auxiliaries</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">We'll also look briefly at 'reducing' concession clauses, at fronting concession clauses and at something called <span class="bQ">Yes, But</span> arguing.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3><span class="instr">Introduction - the difference between contrast and concession.</span></h3>
<div class="m10">Look at these two sentences</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>Mary prefers coffee, but Peter prefers tea</li>
<li>Although Mary usually prefers coffee, today she's drinking tea.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In the first example we have a simple contrast. There's no reason why Peter should prefer coffee just because Mary does.</div>
<div class="m10">But in the second example, we have something a little unexpected, something slightly surprising. Because Mary prefers coffee, we might expect her to be drinking coffee today, but no, she's decided to have tea instead.</div>
<div class="m10">The second sentence is an example of concession, when something unexpected happens - Mary's drinking tea today - even though we have conceded something else - that is to admit that something else is true - that Mary usually prefers coffee.</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - with simple contrast, we are usually comparing a similar aspect of two different people, things or situations. With concession, we are often contrasting two different aspects of the same person, thing or situation.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv1" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h4><span class="instr">Ex 0 - introductory exercise</span> - Contrast or concession?</h4>
<div class="m10">Whether something expresses concession or contrast is open to interpretation, so the answers in this first exercise reflect my ideas, not necessarily some golden rule. </div>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="instr" style="width:75px;text-align:center;">Simple<br>Contrast</td><td class="instr" style="text-align:center;">Concession</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1.</td><td>Sally is blonde, but her sister is brunette.</td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q0" id="ex1Q0Radio1" type="radio"></td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q0" id="ex1Q0Radio2" type="radio"></td><td id="ex1TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2.</td><td>Although Sally originally wanted to become a lawyer, she finally decided on a career in medicine.</td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q1" id="ex1Q1Radio1" type="radio"></td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q1" id="ex1Q1Radio2" type="radio"></td><td id="ex1TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3.</td><td>This plan is <span class="ref" title="filled with something unpleasant (OALD)">fraught</span> with problems. Nevertheless, I think we should go ahead with it.</td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q2" id="ex1Q2Radio1" type="radio"></td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q2" id="ex1Q2Radio2" type="radio"></td><td id="ex1TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4.</td><td>Mark's idea would be quite expensive. Sandy's, however, sounds relatively cheap.</td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q3" id="ex1Q3Radio1" type="radio"></td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q3" id="ex1Q3Radio2" type="radio"></td><td id="ex1TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5.</td><td>In spite of the crisis, this sector of the economy has been doing quite well.</td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q4" id="ex1Q4Radio1" type="radio"></td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q4" id="ex1Q4Radio2" type="radio"></td><td id="ex1TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6.</td><td>The South of England is relatively flat. The North, on the other hand, is much hillier.</td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q5" id="ex1Q5Radio1" type="radio"></td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q5" id="ex1Q5Radio2" type="radio"></td><td id="ex1TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7.</td><td>He's not the greatest conversationalist. Mind you, he is rather good-looking.</td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q6" id="ex1Q6Radio1" type="radio"></td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q6" id="ex1Q6Radio2" type="radio"></td><td id="ex1TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8.</td><td>In Geneva, most people speak French, whereas in Zurich they mainly speak German.</td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q7" id="ex1Q7Radio1" type="radio"></td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q7" id="ex1Q7Radio2" type="radio"></td><td id="ex1TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9.</td><td>Recent sales have been disappointing. However, this month is looking rather better.</td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q8" id="ex1Q8Radio1" type="radio"></td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q8" id="ex1Q8Radio2" type="radio"></td><td id="ex1TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10.</td><td>Much as I trust your judgement, this time In think we'll do it my way.</td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q9" id="ex1Q9Radio1" type="radio"></td><td class="rcTd"><input class="radioCheck" name="ex1Q9" id="ex1Q9Radio2" type="radio"></td><td id="ex1TickBox9"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3 class="instr">Contrast clause or concession clause (aka Concessive clause)? A short note.</h3>
<div class="m10">Look at these two example sentences adapted from a grammar book:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although</span> everyone was tired</span>, they kept going until it got dark.<br />
<span class="normal">(= concession - their action is slightly surprising given their tiredness)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although</span> they accepted some of his recommendations</span>, they rejected others.<br />
<span class="normal">(= contrast - between accepting some recommendation and rejecting others)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Some books for learners would call the first clause in both of these sentences concession clauses. Others would call them both contrast clauses. This particular book calls the first one a concession clause and the second a contrast clause, but not many books make that distinction.</div>
<div class="m10">There is not a big difference between contrast and concession, and a lot of the examples we'll be looking at express both concession and contrast to varying degrees. It's an area where even linguists have problems: in one academic paper, the writer calls concession a 'fuzzy' (not clear, confused) concept, so it's not worth getting too worried about the difference.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3 class="instr">Section 1 - the basics</h3>
<h3><span class="instr">1a. Expressing concession with <em>although, though, even though</em></span></h3>
<div class="m10">The usual way of talking about concession is to have a clause starting with <span class="bQ">although, though</span> and <span class="bQ">even though</span>, which are are (subordinating) conjunctions (sometimes called subordinators). The concession clause can come before or after the main clause.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although</span> Mary usually prefers coffee</span>, today she's drinking tea.</li>
<li>Mary's drinking tea today <span class="lw"><span class="hl">although</span> she usually prefers coffee</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">Although</span> and <span class="bQ">though</span> are synonymous, but <span class="bQ">although</span> is probably more common in writing while <span class="bQ">though</span> is thought to be more informal.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although/though</span> it had started to rain</span>, we decided to go for a walk.</li>
<li>He said he'd be on time <span class="lw"><span class="hl">although/though</span> I doubt it, knowing him</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">Even though</span> is stronger and more emphatic than <span class="bQ">though</span> and <span class="bQ">although</span>, and is usually stressed when speaking.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Even though</span> I knew I shouldn't</span>, I had another of her delicious cakes. </li>
<li>They were late <span class="lwl"><span class="hl">even though</span> they had taken a taxi</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Sometimes it only makes sense to use <span class="bQ">although</span> etc with only one part of the sentence. It must make sense for the main clause to logically follow on from the concession clause: </div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although</span> I was rather tired</span>, I decided to stay up to see the late movie.<br />
<span class="strike">I was rather tired, <span class="lw"><span class="hl">although</span> I decided to stay up to see the late movie</span>.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But sometimes you have a choice, depending on your point of view:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although</span> the film was a bit long,</span> it was quite enjoyable.<br />
<span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although</span> the film was quite enjoyable</span>, it was a bit long.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4 class="instr"><em>Though</em> as an adverb.</h4>
<div class="m10">Note that we can also use <span class="bQ">though</span> (but not <span class="bQ">although</span> and <span class="bQ">even though</span>) as an adverb, to mean '<em>however</em>'. In this use it can also come at the end of the sentence</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>That's what she says, but what she really thinks, <span class="lw">though</span>, I have no idea.</li>
<li>We'd better be going. - We've still got plenty of time, <span class="lw">though</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv3" style="page-break-before:always;">
<table class="m10" style="font-weight:bold;">
<tr><td style="width:100px;"><span class="instr">Exercise 1a</span></td><td>Complete the sentences</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>Use <span class="instr"><em>although</em></span> + a sentence from the box, as in the example.</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;border:1px gray solid;padding:5px;margin:20px 20px;">
<tr><td style="width:250px;padding-left:5px;">we don't know them very well</td><td>we'd never met before</td></tr>
<tr><td style="width:250px;padding-left:5px;">there was a light on upstairs</td><td>I really like her</td></tr>
<tr><td style="width:250px;padding-left:5px;">they still lost</td><td>I've never met him</td></tr>
<tr><td style="width:250px;padding-left:5px;">we live in the country</td><td style="padding-right:5px;">she never went to university</td></tr>
<tr><td style="width:250px;padding-left:5px;"><span class="strike">we took a taxi</span></td><td style="padding-right:5px;"></td>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">Eg. </td><td><span class="textBox" style="padding:2px 30px 2px 5px;font-style:italic;">Although we took a taxi</span>, we were still late.</td><td style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex3AnsBox0" style="width:270px;" type="text">, he sounds really interesting.</td><td id="ex3TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex3AnsBox1" style="width:270px;" type="text">, life is never dull.</td><td id="ex3TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>Nobody seemed to be at home <input class="textBox" id="ex3AnsBox2" style="width:270px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex3TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>We asked them round for dinner <input class="textBox" id="ex3AnsBox3" style="width:270px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex3TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex3AnsBox4" style="width:270px;" type="text">, we clicked immediately.</td><td id="ex3TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>She's very bright <input class="textBox" id="ex3AnsBox5" style="width:270px;" type="text">. </td><td id="ex3TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>They played really well <input class="textBox" id="ex3AnsBox6" style="width:270px;" type="text">.</td><td id="ex3TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td><input class="textBox" id="ex3AnsBox7" style="width:270px;" type="text">, she can be a bit distant sometimes. </td><td id="ex3TickBox7"></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkAnsBoxInvisibleAnswersScore(3)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearAnsBoxInvisibleAnswers(3)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printExercise(3)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea3"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;"
<h3><span class="instr">1b. Expressing concession with <em>despite, in spite of</em></span></h3>
<div class="m10">These have a similar meaning to <span class="bQ">although</span> and also express concession. But they are prepositions, so they can be only be followed by:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">a noun or noun phrase<br />
</span><span class="lw">In spite of</span> <span class="hl">the bad weather</span>, we had a great time</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">a pronoun</span><br />
Everything seemed to go wrong, but we had a really good time <span class="lw">in spite of <span class="hl">it all</span></span>.</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">an <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form (gerund) or gerund phrase - </span><br />
<span class="lw">Despite</span> <span class="hl">telling him three times</span>, he still forgot. </li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">If we want to follow them with a full clause (that's to say, subject + verb), we need to add '<span class="bQ">the fact that</span>', </div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>the fact that<span class="normal"> + clause</span></li>
</ul>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="lw">In spite of</span> <span class="hl">the fact that she was pregnant</span>, she kept working till the last moment.</li>
<li><span class="lw">Despite</span> <span class="hl">the fact that it was raining</span>, we went for a walk anyway.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But this is rather formal and long-winded, and it's usually better to use <span class="bQ">although</span> instead:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although</span> she was pregnant,</span> she kept working till the last moment.</li>
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although</span> it was raining</span>, we went for a walk anyway.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">There is no difference in meaning between <span class="bQ">despite</span> and <span class="bQ">in spite of</span>, but some people prefer to use <span class="bQ">despite</span> in writing, probably because it is shorter. This Ngram graph shows how the use of <span class="bQ">despite</span> is increasing in popularity in books, both British and American: </div>
<div class="m10">
<iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=despite%3Aeng_gb_2012%2Cin+spite+of%3Aeng_gb_2012%2Cdespite%3Aeng_us_2012%2Cin+spite+of%3Aeng_us_2012&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cdespite%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cin%20spite%20of%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cdespite%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cin%20spite%20of%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="webAddr"><center><a href="https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=despite%3Aeng_gb_2012%2Cin+spite+of%3Aeng_gb_2012%2Cdespite%3Aeng_us_2012%2Cin+spite+of%3Aeng_us_2012&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cdespite%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cin%20spite%20of%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cdespite%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cin%20spite%20of%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0">Ngram Viewer</a></center></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv7" style="page-break-before:always;">
<table class="m10" style="font-weight:bold;">
<tr><td class="instr" style="width:100px;">Exercise 1b</td><td>Choose the best option</td></tr>
<tr class="noprint"><td></td><td>Click on your preferred option to underline it</td></tr>
</table>
<table><tbody><tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td><span id="ex7line0opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,0,0,2,0)">Although </span> / <span id="ex7line0opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,0,1,2,0)"> Despite</span> the rain, it was a great afternoon.</td><td id="ex7tickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>We had a great time <span id="ex7line1opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,1,0,1,0)">though</span> / <span id="ex7line1opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,1,1,1,0)">in spite of</span> it rained a bit.</td><td id="ex7tickBox1" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>She passed her test easily <span id="ex7line2opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,2,0,2,0)">although </span> / <span id="ex7line2opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,2,1,2,0)"> despite</span> not doing much revision.</td><td id="ex7tickBox2" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td><span id="ex7line3opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,3,0,2,0)">Although </span> / <span id="ex7line3opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,3,1,2,0)"> Despite</span> the salary wasn't great, she took the job.</td><td id="ex7tickBox3" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td><span id="ex7line5opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,5,0,2,0)">Although </span> / <span id="ex7line5opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,5,1,2,0)"> Despite</span> coming first, she felt she could have done better.</td><td id="ex7tickBox5" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td><span id="ex7line4opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,4,0,2,0)">Although </span> / <span id="ex7line4opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,4,1,2,0)"> In spite of</span> coming first isn't everything, it sure helps.</td><td id="ex7tickBox4" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>I managed to get tickets <span id="ex7line6opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,6,0,2,0)">although </span> / <span id="ex7line6opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,6,1,2,0)"> despite</span> the queue was rather long.</td><td id="ex7tickBox6" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>I didn't manage to get very good seats <span id="ex7line7opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,7,0,2,0)">although </span> / <span id="ex7line7opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(7,7,1,2,0)">, though</span>.</td><td id="ex7tickBox7" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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</div>
<div class="exDiv" id='exDiv2'>
<h4><span class="instr">Exercise 1c</span> - Convert from <span class="bQ">although</span> to <span class="bQ">despite</span></h4>
<div >
<div id="tableOuter2"><table id="table2" style="line-height:1.5;font-size:14;"><tbody>
<tr style="height:40px;"><td colspan="3">Rewrite the sections in italics using <span class="bQ">despite</span> and an <span class="bQ">-ing</span> form</td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td><em>Although he was a director</em>, he didn't play a strong role in the company.<br><input style="width:200px;" class="textBox" id="ex2AnsBox0" type="text">, he didn't play a strong role in the company. </td><td id="ex2TickBox0"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>She always seemed to be short of cash, <em>although she had plenty of money in the bank</em>.<br>She always seemed to be short of cash, <input style="width:300px;" class="textBox" id="ex2AnsBox1" type="text"> </td><td id="ex2TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td><em>Although he talked a lot</em>, he didn't often come up with any useful ideas.<br><input style="width:200px;" class="textBox" id="ex2AnsBox2" type="text"> , he didn't often come up with any useful ideas.</td><td id="ex2TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr style="height:40px;"><td colspan="3"><br />Rewrite the sections in italics using <span class="bQ">despite</span> and <span class="bQ">his/her/its</span> + noun<br /></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td><em>Although she was beautiful</em>, she was quite shy.<br><input style="width:150px;" class="textBox" id="ex2AnsBox3" type="text">, she was quite shy </td><td id="ex2TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>We're going to buy this anyway, <em>although it is expensive</em>.<br>We're going to buy this anyway, <input style="width:150px;" class="textBox" id="ex2AnsBox4" type="text"> </td><td id="ex2TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td><em>Although he promised to call me back</em>, he never did.<br><input style="width:300px;" class="textBox" id="ex2AnsBox5" type="text">, he never did. </td><td id="ex2TickBox5"></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3><span class="instr">Section 2 - more advanced</h3>
<h3><span class="instr">2a. <em>While</em>, (<em>whilst</em>) and <em>whereas</em></span></h3>
<h4 class="instr">The conjunction <em>while</em> is not only used to talk about time.</h4>
<div class="m10">As a conjunction, <span class="bQ">while</span> is usually used to talk about a <span class="instr">time</span> relationship between two events:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10">He washed up the dishes <span class="lw"><span class="hl">while</span> she put the children to bed</span>.</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">While</span> he was washing up the dishes</span>, the front doorbell rang.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But <span class="bQ">while</span> also has two other uses:</div>
<table class="m10"><tr><td class="instr">1. </td> <td style="margin:-20px 0 0 20px;">It can be used to express a <span class="instr">contrast</span>, especially when comparing the same aspect of two different people, things or situations, etc. The <span class="bQ">while</span>-clause can come first or second, but most commonly seems to appear second.</td></tr></table>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10">Italy is in the south of Europe, <span class="lw"><span class="hl">while</span> Sweden is in the north.</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">While</span> Sally has blue eyes</span>, her sister has brown ones.</li>
</ul>
<table class="m10"><tr><td class="instr">2. </td><td>We can also use <span class="bQ">while</span> to express <span class="instr">concession</span>, when it can usually be replaced by <span class="bQ">although</span>. In this meaning the <span class="bQ">while</span>-clause always comes first. (See note at end).</td></tr></table>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">While</span> I understand your point of view</span>, I'm afraid I have to disagree with you.</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">While</span> results have been pretty good so far,</span> we shouldn't get too complacent</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - We need to make sure when using <span class="bQ">while</span> for contrast or concession that there isn't any confusion with the time meaning:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">While</span> Peterson scored the first two goals</span>, the third was headed in by Jennings.<br />
<span class="normal"> - This could be ambiguous - were all three goals scored at the same time? So we could either change it slightly:</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">While</span> it was Peterson who scored the first two goals</span>, the third was headed in by Jennings.<br />
<span class="normal"> - This makes the sense of contrast, rather than time, clearer. Or we could avoid <span class="bQ">while</span> altogether:</span></li>
<li class="m10">Peterson scored the first two goals and/but the third was headed in by Jennings.<br />
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h4 class="instr"><em>Whilst</em></h4>
<div class="m10">In British English, we occasionally use <span class="bQ">whilst</span> instead of <span class="bQ">while</span>, but it is considered rather formal. In American English, <span class="bQ">whilst</span> is considered old fashioned or pretentious. There is no real need for foreign learners to use it.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4 class="instr"><em>Whereas</em></h4>
<div class="m10">To some extent <span class="bQ">whereas</span> has a similar meaning to <span class="bQ">while</span>, but is a bit more formal and is more common in written texts. However, its use is more restricted than that of <span class="bQ">while</span>, in that it must always express a direct contrast between two situations.</div>
<div class="m10">Although we can put the <span class="bQ">whereas / while</span>-clause first or second in this meaning, in the vast majority of examples I've found it comes second (see note at end), when it means something like <span class="bQ">but</span> or <span class="bQ">'when on the other hand'</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10">I believe in the Loch Ness monster, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">whereas / while</span> my brother doesn't</span>.</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hli">Whereas / While </span>she likes jazz</span>, I prefer opera.</li>
<li class="m10">He is quite tall, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">while / whereas</span> his brother is rather short</span>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Although <span class="bQ">whereas</span> is always used to express a direct contrast between two situations, sometimes this contrast can be surprising or unexpected in the context, in which case <span class="bQ">whereas</span> can also be said to have a concessive function. In these cases the <span class="bQ">whereas</span>-clause usually comes first.</div>
<div class="m10">This seems to be especially true when we contrast something that goes against the norm, against the majority, or against the trend, or when we point out a negative contrast. In these cases, the <span class="bQ">whereas</span>-clause often comes first:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Whereas (While)</span> more than ninety percent of British children go to state schools</span>, a recent study has shown that as many as 50% of the top jobs in the country are held by people who were educated at elite 'independent' (i.e. private) schools. </li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Whereas (While)</span> most of the party's MPs support the government on this issue</span>, a small handful are determined to vote against the party line. </li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Whereas (While)</span> sales have been excellent for most of the summer</span>, for some reason we're not sure about, they declined in August.</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Whereas (While)</span> most patients recover from this illness fairly quickly</span>, a few develop complications, which can cause the illness to linger.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3 class="instr">Comparing <em>although, while</em> and <em>whereas</em>.</h3>
<h4 class="instr" style="margin:10 0 0 0;">1. <em>Although</em></h4>
<div class="m10">This is the most versatile of the three: on the one hand it can convey concession with almost no idea of contrast:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although</span> I'd already eaten</span>, I decided to go with some friends for a sushi anyway.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">On the other, it can refer to simple contrast with very little idea of concession:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although</span> I get on well with Peter</span>, I don't like his brother very much.</li>
</ul><br />
<h4 class="instr" style="margin:10 0 0 0;">2. <em>While</em></h4>
<div class="m10">Although <span class="bQ">while</span> is usually used for simple contrast, we can often also use it in a very similar way to <span class="bQ">although</span>. When used with a concessive meaning like this, it should express some sort of contrast, but that contrast can be very soft, and not necessarily comparing two similar things.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hl">While/Although</span> we've only known each other a short time</span>, we get on really well.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Brian Garner, in <em>Garner's Modern American Usage</em>, calls <span class="bQ">while</span> <em>'a more relaxed and conversational term than <span class="bQ">although</span> or <span class="bQ">whereas</span>'</em>.</div><br />
<h4 class="instr" style="margin:10 0 0 0;">3. <em>Whereas</em></h4>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">Whereas</span> is the most restricted of the three, used to express a strong contrast between two people, things or situations. It can only be used to express concession when this strong contrast also exists: </div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Whereas / While</span> I've only known Mark for a short time</span>, I've known his brother for much longer.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In this sentence, we are directly comparing two similar situations (how long I've known Mark compared with how long I've known his brother), so <span class="bQ">whereas</span> is possible. There is a slight element of concession in that you might possibly expect me to have known his brother for much the same time as I've known him.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">While <span class="strike"> / Whereas</span></span> we've only known each other a short time</span>, we get on really well.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But in this second sentence, we are talking about concession without any real idea of contrasting, and especially not of contrasting like with like, so <span class="bQ">whereas</span> wouldn't work here.</div><br />
<h4 class="instr" style="margin:10 0 0 0;">4. Summary</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>although<span class="normal"> - mainly used for concession, with some overlap into contrast.</span></li>
<li>whereas<span class="normal"> - mainly for strong contrast, with some overlap into concession.</span></li>
<li>while<span class="normal"> - can usually be used for both concession and contrast.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">
<table class="grammarTable" id="cct" style="margin:10px auto;">
<tr><th>Concesson</th><th style="width:25%;"> </th><th>Contrast</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" id="cc1">although</td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td colspan="2" style="text-align:right;" id="cc2">whereas</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" id="cc3">while</td></tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div id="exDiv8" class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<div class="noprint"><div class="m10">There isn't a lot of information available about the exact differences in the use of <span class="bQ">although, while</span> and <span class="bQ">whereas</span>, so the answers in this exercise reflects my own interpretation of the differences between them. You can read my comments after you've done the exercise.</div></div>
<table class="m10" style="font-weight:bold;">
<tr><td style="width:100px;"><span class="instr">Exercise 2</span></td><td>Choose the word that fits best <span class="noprint">by clicking on it</span>. Sometimes both answers are possible, so try and decide which the sentence expresses more strongly - concession (<span class="bQ">although / while</span>), or contrast (<span class="bQ">whereas / while</span>).</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table class="matchTable"><tbody><tr><td class="tdNum" >1. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;"><span class="dropGap" style="width:65px;" id="ex8gap0"></span> I see what you're getting at, I don't necessarily agree with you.</td><td id="ex8TickBox0"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,0,1)"><span id="ex8Q0Opt1">Whereas</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,0,2)"><span id="ex8Q0Opt2">While</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >2. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">France is quite centralised, <span class="dropGap" style="width:65px;" id="ex8gap1"></span> Germany is more federal in nature.</td><td id="ex8TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,1,1)"><span id="ex8Q1Opt1">although</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,1,2)"><span id="ex8Q1Opt2">whereas</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >3. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;"><span class="dropGap" style="width:65px;" id="ex8gap2"></span> she's only lived here a few years, she speaks English fluently.</td><td id="ex8TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,2,1)"><span id="ex8Q2Opt1">Although</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,2,2)"><span id="ex8Q2Opt2">Whereas</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >4. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">The elder daughter is training to be an engineer, <span class="dropGap" style="width:65px;" id="ex8gap3"></span> her sister is studying medicine.</td><td id="ex8TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,3,1)"><span id="ex8Q3Opt1">whereas</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,3,2)"><span id="ex8Q3Opt2">while</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >5. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;"><span class="dropGap" style="width:65px;" id="ex8gap4"></span> the climate on the west coast is relatively warm and wet, on the east coast it's colder and drier.</td><td id="ex8TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,4,1)"><span id="ex8Q4Opt1">Although</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,4,2)"><span id="ex8Q4Opt2">While</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >6. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">She's usually right about these things <span class="dropGap" style="width:65px;" id="ex8gap5"></span> this time I think she's mistaken.</td><td id="ex8TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,5,1)"><span id="ex8Q5Opt1">although</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,5,2)"><span id="ex8Q5Opt2">while</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >7. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">I got completely lost, <span class="dropGap" style="width:65px;" id="ex8gap6"></span> I'd been there a couple of times before.</td><td id="ex8TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,6,1)"><span id="ex8Q6Opt1">although</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,6,2)"><span id="ex8Q6Opt2">whereas</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >8. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;"><span class="dropGap" style="width:65px;" id="ex8gap7"></span> in the past this type of information was only available to a few, now it is available to anyone with an internet connection. </td><td id="ex8TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,7,1)"><span id="ex8Q7Opt1">Although</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,7,2)"><span id="ex8Q7Opt2">Whereas</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >9. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">Most first year students live in student residences, <span class="dropGap" style="width:65px;" id="ex8gap8"></span> those in their second and third years tend to prefer living in flats.</td><td id="ex8TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,8,1)"><span id="ex8Q8Opt1">although</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,8,2)"><span id="ex8Q8Opt2">while</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >10. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">The Prime Minister has announced early elections <span class="dropGap" style="width:65px;" id="ex8gap9"></span> nobody really knows quite why.</td><td id="ex8TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,9,1)"><span id="ex8Q9Opt1">although</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,9,2)"><span id="ex8Q9Opt2">while</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >11. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">United have won five out of their six matches so far, <span class="dropGap" style="width:65px;" id="ex8gap10"></span> City have only managed to win one.</td><td id="ex8TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,10,1)"><span id="ex8Q10Opt1">although</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,10,2)"><span id="ex8Q10Opt2">whereas</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >12. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;"><span class="dropGap" style="width:65px;" id="ex8gap11"></span> the company haven't made an official announcement, many commentators expect them to launch the long-awaited new model next week.</td><td id="ex8TickBox11"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,11,1)"><span id="ex8Q11Opt1">Whereas</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(8,11,2)"><span id="ex8Q11Opt2">While</span></a></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkPickNDrop(8)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearPickNDrop(8)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printExercise(8)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"><span id="messageArea8"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">
<h4><a href="javascript:toggle(1)"><span id="displayText1">Show</span> my comments to Exercise 3</a></h4>
<div class="m10">If using <span class="bQ">while</span> for concession, remember to put the <span class="bQ">while</span>-clause first, but if it simply expressed contrast, I'd put it second.</div>
<div id="toggleText1" style="display:none;">
<div class="m10">There is very little information available about these differences, so this is very much my own interpretation.</div>
<ol class="instr">
<li><span class="normal">This is more about concession than the strong contrast that <span class="bQ">whereas</span> suggests.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">A direct contrast between France and Germany.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">This is concession rather than strong contrast.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">To avoid ambiguity - here, <span class="bQ">while</span> could mean <span class="bQ">'at the same time as'.</span></span></li>
<li><span class="normal">A simple contrast between the climate on the two coasts.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Concession - <span class="bQ">while</span> not used in second clause for concession.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">This is pure concession, without any sense of contrast.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Contrast of then and now is stronger than any concession.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">The contrast between the living preferences of different types of students is stronger than any concessio</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Concession with little idea of contrast.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Contrast between the performance of two clubs. <span class="bQ">Although</span> would make more sense, perhaps, before the first clause.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">This is concession rather than strong contrast.</span></li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
<h4 class="instr">Tip</h4>
<div class="m10">Both <span class="bQ">while</span> and <span class="bQ">whereas</span> would be good words to work into your written work (<span class="bQ">whereas</span> is in the Academic Word List, for example). But until you get really familiar with it, I'd reserve <span class="bQ">whereas</span> for pure contrast, and put the <span class="bQ">whereas</span>-clause second.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><span class="instr">3. <em>Even though</em> and <em>even if</em></span></h3>
<div class="m10">As we've seen, <span class="bQ">even though</span> is a stronger version of <span class="bQ">although</span> and means <span class="bQ">despite the fact that</span>. <span class="bQ">Even if</span>, however, introduces a condition, and is more like <span class="bQ">whether or not</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hli">Even though</span> he's busy</span>, I think you should ask him.<br />
<span class="normal">=</span> Despite the fact that he's busy, ...<br />
<span class="normal">I know that he's busy - we know that the information in the concessive clause is true.</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hli">Even if</span> he's busy</span>, I think you should ask him.<br />
<span class="normal">=</span> Whether or not he's busy, ...<br />
<span class="normal">I don't know for sure whether he's busy or not - the information in the concessive clause may be true, but we don't know for certain.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv6">
<table class="m10" style="font-weight:bold;">
<tr><td class="instr" style="width:100px;">Exercise 3</td><td><span class="bQ">even though</span> or <span class="bQ">even if</span> - choose the best option</td></tr>
<tr class="noprint"><td></td><td>Click on your preferred option to underline it</td></tr>
</table>
<table><tbody><tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>She stayed out late <span id="ex6line0opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,0,0,2,0)">even though </span> / <span id="ex6line0opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,0,1,2,0)"> even if</span> I told her to be back early.</td><td id="ex6tickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td><span id="ex6line1opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,1,0,2,0)">Even though </span> / <span id="ex6line1opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,1,1,2,0)"> Even if</span> they win, they can't get through the next round.</td><td id="ex6tickBox1" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>He agreed to meet them <span id="ex6line2opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,2,0,2,0)">even though </span> / <span id="ex6line2opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,2,1,2,0)"> even if</span> he knew that it was pointless.</td><td id="ex6tickBox2" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>I really enjoyed the film, <span id="ex6line3opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,3,0,2,0)">even though </span> / <span id="ex6line3opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,3,1,2,0)"> even if</span> I don't usually like Westerns.</td><td id="ex6tickBox3" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>It's worth going for the interview, <span id="ex6line4opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,4,0,2,0)">even though </span> / <span id="ex6line4opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,4,1,2,0)"> even if</span> they turn you down.</td><td id="ex6tickBox4" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>We're going for a walk later <span id="ex6line5opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,5,0,2,0)">even though </span> / <span id="ex6line5opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,5,1,2,0)"> even if</span> it doesn't clear up.</td><td id="ex6tickBox5" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td><span id="ex6line6opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,6,0,2,0)">Even though </span> / <span id="ex6line6opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,6,1,2,0)"> Even if</span> we've met a few times, I don't know him very well.</td><td id="ex6tickBox6" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td><span id="ex6line7opt0" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,7,0,2,0)">Even though </span> / <span id="ex6line7opt1" class="optWord" onclick="underlineOpt(6,7,1,2,0)"> Even if</span> we did turn up a bit late, it wouldn't really matter.</td><td id="ex6tickBox7" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkUnderliner(6)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearUnderliner(6)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="printExercise(6)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"> <span id="messageArea6"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3 class="instr">4. Other ways of introducing an unexpected contrast</h3>
<h4><span class="instr">4a. Conjunctive adverbs and adverbials</span></h4>
<div class="m10">We can also express contrast and concession with adverbs and adverbial expressions. In writing, these adverbs and adverbial expressions usually start a new sentence, or follow a semicolon or dash ( - ), and are themselves followed by a comma.</div>
<h4><span class="instr">Contrast</span></h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="instr"><em>however</em></span><br />
My wife likes the mornings best. I, <span class="hl">however</span>, prefer the evenings.</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="instr"><em>on the other hand</em></span><br />
The West coast is quite wet. <span class="hl">On the other hand</span>, it is also quite warm.</li>
<li><span class="instr"><em>in contrast</em></span><br />
The West coast is quite wet. <span class="hl">In contrast</span>, the east coast is much drier.<br />
<span class="hl">In contrast</span> to the east coast, the west coast in quite wet.</li>
</ul>
<h4><span class="instr">Concession</span></h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="instr"><em>nevertheless</em>, <em>nonetheless</em></span> <span class="normal">(more formal)</span><br />
We'd seen the film before. <span class="hl">Nevertheless</span>, my wife wanted to watch it again.</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="instr"><em>however</em></span><br />
I'd rather have watched the football - <span class="hl">however</span>, I agreed to watch the film.</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="instr"><em>even so</em></span><br />
It was a quite good film. <span class="hl">Even so</span>, I'd have preferred to watch the football.</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="instr"><em>all the same</em></span><br />
I quite enjoyed it; <span class="hl">all the same</span>, I prefer something a bit more lively.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">We can also put <span class="bQ">however</span> and <span class="bQ">nevertheless</span> at the end of the second sentence or clause.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>My wife likes the mornings best. I prefer the evenings, <span class="hl">however</span>.</li>
<li>We'd seen the film before. My wife wanted to watch it again, <span class="hl">nevertheless</span>.</li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Tip</h4>
<div class="m10">Advanced foreign learners no doubt already use <span class="bQ">however</span> and <span class="bQ">on the other hand</span>, but if you don't already do so, now would be a good time to add <span class="bQ">nevertheless</span> and <span class="bQ">in contrast</span> to your <span class="ref" title="(formal) the things that somebody has available to help them achieve something (OALD)">armoury</span>. They are especially useful in academic writing.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h4><span class="instr">4b <em>Much as</em> + subj + verb</span></h4>
<div class="m10">We can use <span class="bQ">much as</span>, to mean <span class="bQ">even though</span>, with verbs like <span class="bQ">love, hate</span> etc</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hli">Much as</span> I like her</span>, this is going too far<br />
(<span class="normal">even though I like her</span>)</li>
<li class="m10">OK, I'll do the washing up, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">much as</span> I detest it</span>!<br />
<span class="normal">(even though I detest it)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">See also the section on <span class="bQ">as ... as ...</span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4><span class="instr">4c. <em>It doesn't matter / no matter how /what</em> etc</span></h4>
<div class="m10">We can use <span class="bQ">it doesn't matter how/what</span> etc, or <span class="bQ">no matter how/what</span> etc, instead of <span class="bQ">even though</span>. </div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hli">It didn't matter how</span> hard he tried</span>, he just couldn't do it.</li>
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hli">No matter how</span> hard he tried</span>, he just couldn't do it.</li>
<li><span class="normal">(Even though he tried very hard)</span)</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4><span class="instr">4d. <em>however, whatever, whichever</em></span></h4>
<div class="m10">We can also use <span class="bQ">however, whatever</span> etc in a similar way to <span class="bQ">no matter how/what etc</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="normal"><span class="bQ">however</span> + adjective</span><br />
<span class="lw"><span class="hli">However tired</span> she was</span>, she always managed to cook a meal.<br />
</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal"><span class="bQ">however</span> + adverb</span><br />
He just couldn't manage, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">however hard</span> he tried</span>.<br />
</li>
<li class="m10">however much / many<br />
I'm not changing my mind, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">however much</span> you ask me</span>.<br />
<span class="lw"><span class="hli">However many</span> times you ask me,</span> the answer will still be no!
</li>
<li>whatever, whenever <span class="normal">etc</span><br />
We'll do it, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">whatever</span> it takes</span>.<br />
Nobody talks to me like that, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">whoever</span> they are</span>!
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4 class="instr"><em>I Will Be Right Here Waiting For You</em></h4>
<div class="m10">Sung by Bryan Adams and written by Richard Marx. (hat tip to a commenter at <em>anglisci.pl</em>)</div>
<div class="bQl" style="margin-left:30px"><span class="lw"><span class="hli">Wherever</span> you go, <span class="hli">whatever</span> you do</span><br />
I will be right here waiting for you<br />
<span class="lw"><span class="hli">whatever</span> it takes, or how my heart breaks</span><br />
I will be right here waiting for you</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv4" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h4><span class="instr">Exercise 4a</span></h4>
<div id="wordBox" class="wordbox" style="margin:10px 0;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:pickClickedWord(4,0)"><span id="ex4Word0">although</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:pickClickedWord(4,1)"><span id="ex4Word1">as</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:pickClickedWord(4,2)"><span id="ex4Word2">despite</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:pickClickedWord(4,3)"><span id="ex4Word3">however</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:pickClickedWord(4,4)"><span id="ex4Word4">matter</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:pickClickedWord(4,5)"><span id="ex4Word5">much</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:pickClickedWord(4,6)"><span id="ex4Word6">still</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:pickClickedWord(4,7)"><span id="ex4Word7">whatever</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:pickClickedWord(4,8)"><span id="ex4Word8">whereas</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:pickClickedWord(4,9)"><span id="ex4Word9">wherever</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:pickClickedWord(4,10)"><span id="ex4Word10">whichever</span></a></span> · <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:pickClickedWord(4,11)"><span id="ex4Word11">whoever</span></a></span> </div>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;"><tbody>
<tr><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td><span class="dropGap" style="width: 90px;" id="ex4gap0" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfillCaps(4,0)"> </span> much she practised, she just couldn't get the hang of it.</td><td id="ex4TickBox0" style="width:15px;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>The people were incredibly friendly, <span class="dropGap" style="width: 90px;" id="ex4gap1" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(4,1)"> </span> we went.</td><td id="ex4TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td><span class="dropGap" style="width: 90px;" id="ex4gap2" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfillCaps(4,2)"> </span> we had already eaten, we went for a pizza.</td><td id="ex4TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>I've made my mind up, <span class="dropGap" style="width: 90px;" id="ex4gap3" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(4,3)"> </span> she says about it.</td><td id="ex4TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>No <span class="dropGap" style="width: 90px;" id="ex4gap4" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(4,4)"> </span> how hard I try, I just can't open this jar.</td><td id="ex4TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>We went for a long walk, <span class="dropGap" style="width: 90px;" id="ex4gap5" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(4,5)"> </span> the wet weather.</td><td id="ex4TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>Tired <span class="dropGap" style="width: 90px;" id="ex4gap6" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(4,6)"> </span> we were, we managed to make it to the top of the hill.</td><td id="ex4TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td><span class="dropGap" style="width: 90px;" id="ex4gap7" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfillCaps(4,7)"> </span> we spoke to told us the same thing.</td><td id="ex4TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>I've always been fairly relaxed, <span class="dropGap" style="width: 90px;" id="ex4gap8" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(4,8)"> </span> my sister gets a bit uptight.</td><td id="ex4TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td><span class="dropGap" style="width: 90px;" id="ex4gap9" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfillCaps(4,9)"> </span> as I love our holidays in Spain, I do like a change sometimes.</td><td id="ex4TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">11. </td><td>He did a lot of revision, but <span class="dropGap" style="width: 90px;" id="ex4gap10" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(4,10)"> </span> failed the exam.</td><td id="ex4TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum">12. </td><td>We're going to be late, <span class="dropGap" style="width: 90px;" id="ex4gap11" onclick="dropClickedWordGapfill(4,11)"> </span> way we go.</td><td id="ex4TickBox11"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4><span class="instr">4e. Adjective + <em>as/though</em> + subject + linking verb</span></h4>
<div class="m10">Look at these two sentences:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although</span> the exam was difficult</span>, he passed it easily.</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Difficult <span class="hl">though</span> the exam was</span>, he passed it easily.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In the second example, the adjective has been fronted and followed by <span class="bQ">though</span>. Fronting like this is sometimes used with adjectives and linking verbs such as <span class="bQ">be, seem, appear, become, look, sound</span> etc. This is done for effect or emphasis.</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - in the fronted version we can only use <span class="bQ">though</span>, not <span class="bQ">although</span> or <span class="bQ">even though</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">We can use <span class="bQ">as</span> instead of <span class="bQ">though</span>, but only in fronted constructions. (If we started with <span class="bQ">as</span>, it would suggest cause, not concession):</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Talented <span class="hl">though/as</span> she is</span>, she didn't get the first prize.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though she's talented.)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Smart <span class="hl">though/as</span> she appears</span>, she was unable to answer the question.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though she appears smart)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Surprising <span class="hl">though/as</span> it sounds</span>, I've never been to London.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though it sounds amazing)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In Section 6b, we look at less common forms of fronting, with other types of word. See also the section on <span class="bQ">as ... as ...</span></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv5" style="page-break-before:always;">
<table style="font-weight:bold;">
<tr><td class="instr" style="width:100px;">Exercise 4b</td><td>Match the sentence halves, giving special emphasis to the adjectives by moving them to the front of the sentence and adding <span class="bQ">though</span>, as in the example.</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable" style="line-height:1.5;border:1px gray solid;padding:5px;margin:20px 30px;">
<tr><td style="width:250px;padding-left:5px;">It sounds fascinating</td><td>He is rich</td></tr>
<tr><td style="width:250px;padding-left:5px;">He was exhausted</td><td>He was outclassed</td></tr>
<tr><td style="width:250px;padding-left:5px;">He is good</td><td style="padding-right:5px;">His answer was unlikely</td></tr>
<tr><td style="width:250px;padding-left:5px;">It may seem strange</td><td>The train is fast</td></tr>
<tr><td style="width:250px;padding-left:5px;"><span class="strike">The food was delicious</span></td><td style="padding-right:5px;"></td
</table>
<div id="tableOuter5"><table id="table5" style="line-height:1.5;font-size:14;"><tbody>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">eg. </td><td class="textBox" style="font-style:italic;padding-left:5px;">Delicious though the food was</td><td> , I couldn't eat another thing.</td><td></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td><input style="width:250px;" class="textBox" id="ex5AnsBox0" type="text"></td><td> , he hasn't had a holiday for years.</td><td id="ex5TickBox0"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td><input style="width:250px;" class="textBox" id="ex5AnsBox1" type="text"></td><td> , he isn't as talented as my brother.</td><td id="ex5TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td><input style="width:250px;" class="textBox" id="ex5AnsBox2" type="text"></td><td> , it still took us most of the day to get there.</td><td id="ex5TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td><input style="width:250px;" class="textBox" id="ex5AnsBox3" type="text"></td><td> , I think I'll give it a miss.</td><td id="ex5TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td><input style="width:250px;" class="textBox" id="ex5AnsBox4" type="text"></td><td> , he's not exactly generous with his money.</td><td id="ex5TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td><input style="width:250px;" class="textBox" id="ex5AnsBox5" type="text"></td><td> , it turned out that he was actually correct.</td><td id="ex5TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td><input style="width:250px;" class="textBox" id="ex5AnsBox6" type="text"></td><td> , he managed to complete the whole course.</td><td id="ex5TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td><input style="width:250px;" class="textBox" id="ex5AnsBox7" type="text"></td><td> , he still put in an excellent performance.</td><td id="ex5TickBox7"></td></tr></tbody></table>
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</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h4><span class="instr">4f. <em>But / yet</em> (+ <span class="bQ">still / even so / all the same</span>)</span></h4>
<div class="m10">As we saw at the beginning, we usually use <span class="bQ">but</span> to express simple contrast. We can also strengthen the contrast of <span class="bQ">but</span> by using it together with certain other words. It can then give a sense of concession to the first clause, similar to <span class="bQ">even though</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><strong>but still</strong><br />
He ran his best race yet, <span class="hl">but still</span> managed to come almost last.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though he ran his best race yet)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">The expressions <span class="bQ">even so</span> and <span class="bQ">all the same</span> can come immediately after <span class="bQ">but</span>, or at the end of the sentence.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><strong>but even so</strong><br />
There may be some problems, <span class="hl">but even so</span>, I think we should go ahead.<br />
There may be some problems, <span class="hl">but</span> I think we should go ahead <span class="hl">even so</span>.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though there may be some problems)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><strong>but all the same</strong><br />
He made a big mistake, <span class="hl">but all the same</span>, I think we should give him a second chance.<br />
He made a big mistake, <span class="hl">but</span> I think we should give him a second chance <span class="hl">all the same</span></span><br />
<span class="normal">(even though he made a big mistake)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m19">In more formal contexts <span class="bQ">(and) yet</span> is sometimes used like <span class="bQ">but</span> to give a concessive meaning to the clause that comes before it:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10">The neighbourhood is only five minutes from the city centre; <span class="hli">yet</span> it is a haven of peace and quiet.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though the neighourhood is only ten minutes from the city centre)</span></li>
<li class="m10">He put in his best performance to date, <span class="hl">and yet</span> failed to even win a medal.<br /><span class="normal">(even though he put in his best performance to date)</span></li>
</ul>
</li>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3 class="instr">More exotic ways of saying <em>although</em> / <em>even though</em></h3>
<h4><span class="instr">5a. <em>when</em></span></h4>
<div class="m10">We sometimes use <span class="bQ">when</span> with a concessive meaning. In this case, the <span class="bQ">when</span> clause always comes second.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10">He stayed out late <span class="lw"><span class="hli">when</span> I specifically told him to be back by midnight</span>.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though I specifically told him)</span></li>
<li class="m10">She did it all by herself <span class="lw"><span class="hli">when</span> she could easily have asked for help</span><br />
<span class="normal">(even though she could have asked for help)</span></li>
<li class="m10">He brought me a white coffee <span class="lw"><span class="hli">when</span> I'd asked for a black one</span>.<br />
<span class="normal">(although I'd asked for a black one)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4 class="instr">5b. <em>if</em> and <em>if not</em></h4>
<div class="m10">We can sometimes use <span class="bQ">if</span>, usually followed by an adjective or adverbial expression, to have a concessive meaning:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10">The salary is pretty good, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">if</span> slightly less than I was hoping for</span>.<br />
<span class="normal">(although (it's) slightly less than I was hoping for)</span></li>
<li class="m10">The flat is in a lovely area, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">if</span> a bit far from the city centre</span>.<br />
<span class="normal">(although (it's) a bit far from the city centre)</span></li>
<li class="m10">It’s possible, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">if</span> difficult</span>.<br />
<span class="normal">(although it may be difficult)</span>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">With the expression <span class="bQ">if not</span>, however, there can sometimes be a bit of ambiguity. Take the sentence:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>She is very bright, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">if</span> not a genius.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">This could have a concessive meaning:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>She is very bright, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">although</span> not a genius.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But here, <span class="bQ">if not</span> can also mean something like <span class="bQ">perhaps even</span>. </div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>She is very bright, <span class="lw"><span class="hli">perhaps even</span> a genius.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In spoken language, the meaning is usually pretty clear from intonation - in the second meaning we'd stress genius and our intonation would go up. But in written texts there can sometimes be some ambiguity. For this reason, some commenters, for example the Johnson language blog at the Economist and Bryan Garner, author of Garner's Modern American Usage, suggest avoiding it in writing.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4 class="instr">5c. <em>... may ... but ...</em></h4>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">David <span class="hl">may</span> have passed with a higher grade</span>, <span class="hl">but</span> Sally shows the better attitude.<br />
<span class="normal">(Although David passed with a higher grade, Sally shows the better attitude)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Sally <span class="hl">may</span> not be the highest qualified</span>, <span class="hl">but</span> she does have the most experience.<br />
<span class="normal">(Although Sally isn't the highest qualified, she does have the most experience)</span)</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">It <span class="hl">may</span> be a demanding job</span>, <span class="hl">but</span> at least it's not boring.<br />
<span class="normal">(Although it's a demanding job, at least it isn't boring)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">The climb <span class="hl">may</span> have been a long one</span>, <span class="hl">but</span> it was certainly worth it for the views.<br />
<span class="normal">(Although the climb was a long one, it was certainly worth it for the views)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4 class="instr">5d. <em>albeit</em></h4>
<div class="m10">You will occasionally come across <span class="bQ">albeit</span> (pronounced as <span class="bQ">all be it</span>) in printed texts. It is rather formal and means <span class="bQ">although / even though / even if</span>. It is not followed by a clause, but usually by an adverb (especially of manner - and with rather a negative meaning, such as <span class="bQ">reluctantly</span>) or similar prepositional phrase, often starting <span class="bQ">with</span> or <span class="bQ">without</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">In all these examples, <span class="bQ">albeit</span> could be replaced by <span class="bQ">although</span> (or concessive <span class="bQ">if</span> - see 5c). The <span class="bQ">albeit</span> phrase always follows a verb, but can come between two verbs, as in the first example:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>They finally agreed, <span class="lw"><span class="hl">albeit</span> reluctantly</span>, to accept our offer.</li>
<li>They made their way up the hill, <span class="lw"><span class="hl">albeit</span> rather slowly</span>.</li>
<li>She finally accepted his idea, <span class="lw"><span class="hl">albeit</span> with some hesitation</span>.</li>
<li>He tried as hard as he could, <span class="lw"><span class="hl">albeit</span> without much success</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4><span class="instr">5e. Contrastive emphasis with auxiliaries</span></h4>
<div class="m10">In spoken language we can intensify contrast and concession by emphasising auxiliaries. Remember that in simple tenses we need to add <span class="bQ">do / does / did</span> </div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li>I don't like jam, <span class="lw">although I <span class="hl">do</span> like marmalade</span>.</li>
<li>We don't usually like his films, <span class="lw">but we <span class="hl">did</span> like his last one</span>.</li>
<li>They've never been to Paris, <span class="lw">although they <span class="hl">have</span> been to France several times</span>.</li>
<li>He can't snowboard, <span class="lw">although he <span class="hl">can</span> ski quite well</span>.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h4 class="instr">5f. <em>As ... as ...</em></h4>
<div class="m10">We've already seen fronted constructions with <span class="bQ">as</span>, like <span class="bQ">'Strange <span class="hl">as</span> it may seem'</span>, <span class="bQ">'Much <span class="hl">as</span> I regret having done it'</span> and <span class="bQ">'Hard <span class="hl">as</span> I tried'</span>. These could all be preceded by <span class="bQ">'As'</span> - <span class="bQ"><span class="hl">As</span> strange <span class="hl">as</span> it may seem'</span>, etc, and there is some evidence to suggest that these constructions beginning with <span class="bQ">As</span> are becoming more popular in American English:</div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=Much+as+I%3Aeng_gb_2012%2CAs+much+as+I%3Aeng_gb_2012%2CMuch+as+I%3Aeng_us_2012%2CAs+much+as+I%3Aeng_us_2012&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=17&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2CMuch%20as%20I%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CAs%20much%20as%20I%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CMuch%20as%20I%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CAs%20much%20as%20I%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe> </div>
<div class="webAddr"><center><a href="https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=Much+as+I%3Aeng_gb_2012%2CAs+much+as+I%3Aeng_gb_2012%2CMuch+as+I%3Aeng_us_2012%2CAs+much+as+I%3Aeng_us_2012&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=17&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2CMuch%20as%20I%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CAs%20much%20as%20I%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CMuch%20as%20I%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CAs%20much%20as%20I%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0">Ngram Viewer</a></center></div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=Hard+as+I+tried%3Aeng_gb_2012%2CAs+hard+as+I+tried%3Aeng_gb_2012%2CHard+as+I+tried%3Aeng_us_2012%2CAs+hard+as+I+tried%3Aeng_us_2012&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=17&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2CHard%20as%20I%20tried%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CAs%20hard%20as%20I%20tried%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CHard%20as%20I%20tried%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CAs%20hard%20as%20I%20tried%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="webAddr"><center><a href="https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=Hard+as+I+tried%3Aeng_gb_2012%2CAs+hard+as+I+tried%3Aeng_gb_2012%2CHard+as+I+tried%3Aeng_us_2012%2CAs+hard+as+I+tried%3Aeng_us_2012&year_start=1900&year_end=2000&corpus=17&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2CHard%20as%20I%20tried%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CAs%20hard%20as%20I%20tried%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CHard%20as%20I%20tried%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CAs%20hard%20as%20I%20tried%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0">Ngram Viewer</a></center></div>
<div class="m10">This seems to be more pronounced when we add the word <span class="bQ">'may'</span>:</div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=As+much+as+they+may%3Aeng_gb_2012%2CMuch+as+they+may%3Aeng_gb_2012%2CAs+much+as+they+may%3Aeng_us_2012%2CMuch+as+they+may%3Aeng_us_2012&year_start=1970&year_end=2000&corpus=18&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2CAs%20much%20as%20they%20may%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CMuch%20as%20they%20may%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CAs%20much%20as%20they%20may%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CMuch%20as%20they%20may%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="webAddr"><center><a href="https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=As+much+as+they+may%3Aeng_gb_2012%2CMuch+as+they+may%3Aeng_gb_2012%2CAs+much+as+they+may%3Aeng_us_2012%2CMuch+as+they+may%3Aeng_us_2012&year_start=1970&year_end=2000&corpus=18&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2CAs%20much%20as%20they%20may%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CMuch%20as%20they%20may%3Aeng_gb_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CAs%20much%20as%20they%20may%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CMuch%20as%20they%20may%3Aeng_us_2012%3B%2Cc0">Ngram Viewer</a></center></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3 class="instr">6. Some advanced points</h3>
<h4 class="instr">6a Non-finite and verbless concessive clauses</h4>
<div class="m10">Rather like with reduced relative clauses, we can sometimes form 'reduced' concessive clauses with <span class="bQ">-ing</span> forms, 3rd forms and certain verbless constructions instead of a full clause with subject and finite verb.</div>
<div class="m10">We can do this with <span class="bQ">although, though, even though</span> and <span class="bQ">while</span>, but not with <span class="bQ">whereas</span> or <span class="bQ">when</span>. The concessive clause usually comes first (especially with <span class="bQ">while</span>)</div>
<h4 class="instr"><em>-ing</em> forms - active meaning</h4>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">While</span> not wanting to offend him</span>, she was nevertheless determined to be frank.<br />
<span class="normal">(while she didn't want to offend him)</span></li>
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Although</span> generally singing her praises</span>, he could, at times, be quite critical.<br />
<span class="normal">(although he generally sang her praises)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">3rd forms - passive meaning</h4>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Though</span> given every chance</span>, he refused to explain his actions.<br />
<span class="normal">(though he was given every chance)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Even though</span> asked very politely</span>, she still refused to help.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though she was asked very politely)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Verbless constructions</h4>
<div class="m10">These usually omit the verb <span class="bQ">be</span> and its subject:</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">While</span> certainly a gifted musician</span>, he was rather outclassed in this competition.<br />
<span class="normal">(while <strong>he is</strong> certainly a gifted musician)</span></li>
<li>He is fitter than most fifty-year-olds <span class="lw"><span class="hl">though</span> well into his eighties</span>.<br />
<span class="normal">(though <strong>he is</strong> well into his eighties)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h4 class="instr">6b Fronting of concessive clauses</h4>
<div class="m10">We saw in Section 5a how adjectives can be fronted with <span class="bQ">though</span> or <span class="bQ">as</span> to express concession. Remember that with <span class="bQ">as</span>, fronting is obligatory. The same is also sometimes done with adverbs, and less commonly, with nouns and verbs.</div>
<h4 class="instr">Adverbs</h4>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Hard <span class="hl">as</span> he tried</span>, he couldn't budge (move) it.<br />
(<span class="normal">(even though he tried hard)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Nouns</h4>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Idiot <span class="hl">though</span> I may be</span>, I'm not that stupid.<br />
<span class="normal">(although I may be an idiot)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Verbs</h4>
<div class="m10">Note that with simple tenses, we need to add <span class="bQ">do/does/did</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li><span class="lw">Try <span class="hl">as</span> he might</span>, he just couldn't find his keys anywhere.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though he tried very hard)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Fail <span class="hl">though</span> she did this time</span>, she didn't give up hope of passing eventually.<br />
<span class="normal">(although she failed this time)</span>.<br />
</li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Fronting with <em>that</em> + <em>be</em></h4>
<div class="m10">We can do something similar with <span class="bQ">that</span> and the verb <span class="bQ">be</span>. Again, fronting is obligatory. In American English only Noun phrases can be treated this way, but in British English we can do it with adjectives as well.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Fool <span class="hl">that</span> I am</span>, I nevertheless managed to get everything right.<br />
<span class="normal">(even though I'm a fool)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Confident <span class="hl">as</span> she was</span>, she soon came unstuck in the interview. <span class="normal">(British English)<br />
(even though she was confident)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">NB. Causal meanings</h4>
<div class="m10">Note that fronted expressions with <span class="bQ">as</span> and <span class="bQ">that</span> (but not <span class="bQ">though</span>) can also be used with the opposite sense, with a causal meaning rather than a concessive one.</div>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Late <span class="hl">as</span> I was</span>, I decided to take a taxi.<br />
<span class="normal">(because I was late)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Smart <span class="hl">as</span> she is</span>, she passed the exam with flying colours.<br />
<span class="normal">(because she is smart)</li></span>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Fool <span class="hl">that</span> I am</span>, I made a real mess of it.<br />
<span class="normal">(because I'm a fool)</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">Confident <span class="hl">as</span> she was</span>, she sailed through the interview. <span class="normal"><br />
(because she was confident)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><span class="instr">7. <em>Yes, But</em> arguing - claim | concession | counter-argument.</span></h3>
<div class="m10">When we are using more structured language, in a presentation or in writing for example, we use discourse markers to indicate to the listener or reader the general structure of what we are saying. </div>
<div class="m10">One such way is by using <span class="bQ">Yes, But</span> arguing, which uses a three part structure where you:</div>
<ol class="instr">
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">put forward a claim or argument<br />
<span class="bQ">Dogs make the best pets for children</span></span>
</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">concede there might be other arguments against your claim (= Yes)<br />
<span class="bQ">Yes, cats are more independent and need less looking after, perhaps.</span></span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">return to your original claim, strengthening it (= But)<br />
<span class="bQ">But dogs give children more sense of reponsibility.</span></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="m10">We use concession markers to introduce the 'Yes' part, and contrast markers to introduce the 'But' part</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">Yes - </span><span class="instr">yes, it is true (that), admittedly, granted, of course, there is no doubt (that), true, to be sure</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">But - </span><span class="instr">but, however, nonetheless, even so, all the same, still</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">This is a particularly useful device, not only in more academic writing, but any time that you have to put forward an argument, and discuss it. But it is important not to use 'But' expressions in your concessionary part, or 'Yes' expressions in the return part, or you might confuse your listener / reader.</div>
<div class="m10">There's a link at the end to a website for teachers where you can find more information about <span class="bQ">Yes, But</span> arguments.</div>
</div>
<h3><span class="instr" style="page-break-before:always;">8. Bringing it all together</span></h3>
<div class="exDiv" id="exDiv9">
<table style="font-weight:bold;margin:10px 0 20px 0;">
<tr><td class="instr" style="width:100px;">Exercise 8a</td><td>Complete the sentences by entering ONE word into each gap.</td></tr>
</table>
<div id="tableOuter9"><table id="table9" style="line-height:1.5;font-size:14;"><tbody>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">1. </td><td>She decided to take the job, even <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox0" type="text"> the salary was less than she had hoped for.</td><td id="ex9TickBox0"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">2. </td><td>No <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox1" type="text"> what we talk about, she always disagrees with me.</td><td id="ex9TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">3. </td><td>She loves long walks in the country. Her sister, in <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox2" type="text"> , prefers to spend her weekends visiting museums.</td><td id="ex9TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">4. </td><td>I just couldn't keep up with them, <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox3" type="text"> hard I tried.</td><td id="ex9TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">5. </td><td>It does sound rather a long way to go just for an ice-cream. On the other <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox4" type="text"> , you won't taste a better one.</td><td id="ex9TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">6. </td><td>We still felt quite energetic, <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox5" type="text"> our long walk.</td><td id="ex9TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">7. </td><td>I know she speaks English quite well. Even <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox6" type="text"> , it's a bit much expecting her to make a speech.</td><td id="ex9TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">8. </td><td>Well I'm not going to his stupid party, <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox7" type="text"> you say!</td><td id="ex9TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">9. </td><td>I'm not usually very partial to red wines, although I <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox8" type="text"> like Chilean Cabernet Sauvignon.</td><td id="ex9TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">10. </td><td>We're leaving in five minutes even <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox9" type="text"> he hasn't turned up by then.</td><td id="ex9TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">11. </td><td>We didn't particularly want to go to the function but we did so all the <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox10" type="text"> .</td><td id="ex9TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">12. </td><td>We took a taxi but we <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox11" type="text"> managed to arrive late for the concert.</td><td id="ex9TickBox11"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">13. </td><td>I'm afraid I have to go now, <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox12" type="text"> as I would like to help you pack.</td><td id="ex9TickBox12"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">14. </td><td>You <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox13" type="text"> well think that's the case, but I couldn't possibly comment.</td><td id="ex9TickBox13"></td></tr>
<tr style="line-height:1.5;"><td class="tdNum">15. </td><td>Tell them I'm out, <input style="width:70px;" class="textBox" id="ex9AnsBox14" type="text"> it is.</td><td id="ex9TickBox14"></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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<div id="exDiv10" class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<table style="font-weight:bold;margin:10px 0 20px 0;"><tr><td class="instr" style="width:100px;">Exercise 8b</td><td>Choose the word or expression that fits best <span class="noprint">by clicking on it</span>.</td></tr>
</table>
<table class="matchTable"><tbody><tr><td class="tdNum" >1. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">She's very friendly, <span class="dropGap" style="width:85px;" id="ex10gap0"></span> a little shy.</td><td id="ex10TickBox0"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,0,1)"> <span id="ex10Q0Opt1">albeit</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,0,2)"><span id="ex10Q0Opt2">no matter</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,0,3)"><span id="ex10Q0Opt3">despite</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >2. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">He doesn't have a lot of experience but they decided to offer him the job <span class="dropGap" style="width:85px;" id="ex10gap1"></span>.</td><td id="ex10TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,1,1)"><span id="ex10Q1Opt1">albeit</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,1,2)"><span id="ex10Q1Opt2">although</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,1,3)"><span id="ex10Q1Opt3">nevertheless</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >3. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;"><span class="dropGap" style="width:85px;" id="ex10gap2"></span> they've known each other since they were children, it's only recently that they've started going out together.</td><td id="ex10TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,2,1)"><span id="ex10Q2Opt1">Nevertheless</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,2,2)"><span id="ex10Q2Opt2">Whereas</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,2,3)"><span id="ex10Q2Opt3">While</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >4. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">I haven't bought the tickets yet, but I don't think there'll be a any problems, <span class="dropGap" style="width:85px;" id="ex10gap3"></span>.</td><td id="ex10TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,3,1)"><span id="ex10Q3Opt1">in contrast</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,3,2)"><span id="ex10Q3Opt2">although</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,3,3)"><span id="ex10Q3Opt3">though</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >5. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">He earns quite a decent salary, <span class="dropGap" style="width:85px;" id="ex10gap4"></span> his brother has to make do on very little.</td><td id="ex10TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,4,1)"><span id="ex10Q4Opt1">whereas</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,4,2)"><span id="ex10Q4Opt2">in spite of</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,4,3)"><span id="ex10Q4Opt3">albeit</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >6. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">He borrowed my bicycle <span class="dropGap" style="width:85px;" id="ex10gap5"></span> I particularly told him not to.</td><td id="ex10TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,5,1)"><span id="ex10Q5Opt1">when</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,5,2)"><span id="ex10Q5Opt2">albeit</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,5,3)"><span id="ex10Q5Opt3">however</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >7. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;"><span class="dropGap" style="width:85px;" id="ex10gap6"></span> the number of red squirrels in Scotland is declining, the grey squirrel population continues to increase.</td><td id="ex10TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,6,1)"><span id="ex10Q6Opt1">Whereas</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,6,2)"><span id="ex10Q6Opt2">However</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,6,3)"><span id="ex10Q6Opt3">No matter</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >8. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">Funny <span class="dropGap" style="width:85px;" id="ex10gap7"></span> it may seem, I've never seen Star Wars.</td><td id="ex10TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,7,1)"><span id="ex10Q7Opt1">even though</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,7,2)"><span id="ex10Q7Opt2">though</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,7,3)"><span id="ex10Q7Opt3">although</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >9. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">The houses next to the park are quite expensive. Those a street or two away, <span class="dropGap" style="width:85px;" id="ex10gap8"></span>, are a bit cheaper.</td><td id="ex10TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,8,1)"><span id="ex10Q8Opt1">however</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,8,2)"><span id="ex10Q8Opt2">nevertheless</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,8,3)"><span id="ex10Q8Opt3">even so</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >10. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">The old house, <span class="dropGap" style="width:85px;" id="ex10gap9"></span> somewhat delapidated, has a lot of charm.</td><td id="ex10TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,9,1)"><span id="ex10Q9Opt1">if</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,9,2)"><span id="ex10Q9Opt2">as</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,9,3)"><span id="ex10Q9Opt3">when</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >11. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">I've always wanted a Ferrari. <span class="dropGap" style="width:85px;" id="ex10gap10"></span>, it would be a bit impractical, but think of how much fun you could have.</td><td id="ex10TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,10,1)"><span id="ex10Q10Opt1">However</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,10,2)"><span id="ex10Q10Opt2">Still</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,10,3)"><span id="ex10Q10Opt3">True</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" >12. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;"><span class="dropGap" style="width:85px;" id="ex10gap11"></span> not having arrived at at a firm decision yet, we're increasingly inclined to accept their offer.</td><td id="ex10TickBox11"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,11,1)"><span id="ex10Q11Opt1"></span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,11,2)"><span id="ex10Q11Opt2">While</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,11,3)"><span id="ex10Q11Opt3">Whereas</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(10,11,4)"><span id="ex10Q11Opt4">When</span></a></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<div class="exDiv">
<h3 class="instr">Notes on <em>while</em> and <em>whereas</em></h3>
<h4 class="instr">Use and position of <em>while</em>-clauses</h4>
<div class="m10">The vast majority of <span class="bQ">while</span>-clauses on newspaper websites and at the BNC have the time meaning, rather than one of contrast or concession, so it would take far too long to find those I'm interested in. Accordingly, I've just looked at the example sentences given in several (sixteen to be precise) online dictionaries:</div>
<div class="m10">
<table class="grammarTable" style="margin:10px auto;">
<tr><td>contrast - 1st clause</td><td>3</td></tr>
<tr><td>contrast - 2nd clause</td><td>22</td></tr>
<tr><td>concession - 1st clause</td><td>24</td></tr>
<tr><td>concession - 2nd clause</td><td>0</td></tr>
</table></div>
<div class="m10">In dictionary examples, at least, <span class="bQ">while</span>-clauses expressing contrast usually come second, and always come first when expressing concession. Furthermore, in the entry for <span class="bQ">while</span> at the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, there is a note that in the sense of <span class="bQ">although</span> or <span class="bQ">despite the fact that</span> (in other words, concession), <span class="bQ">while</span> is <span class="bQ">'used at the beginning of a sentence'</span>.</div>
<h4 class="instr">Use and position of <em>whereas</em>-clauses</h4>
<div class="m10">This table shows a breakdown of examples of <span class="bQ">whereas</span> taken from various sources. I have classified them as to whether I thought they were being used to express contrast, concession, or ambiguous (where I wasn't sure), and as to whether the <span class="bQ">whereas</span>-clause came first or second in the sentence.</div>
<div class="m10">The newspaper examples were the first shown on a Google site search for their particular websites, the examples from the British National Corpus (BNC) were a random sample chosen by the BNC website.</div>
<table class="grammarTable">
<tr><td></td><td>Dictionaries</td><td>Guardian</td><td>Telegraph</td><td>Independent</td><td>BNC</td><td>Total</td></tr>
<tr><td>Totals</td><td>22</td><td>44</td><td>13</td><td>20</td><td>50</td><td>147</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="7"> </td></tr>
<tr><td>Contrast 1st</td><td>2</td><td>6</td><td></td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>17</td></tr>
<tr><td>Contrast 2nd</td><td>14</td><td>25</td><td>10</td><td>16</td><td>34</td><td>99</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="7"> </td></tr>
<tr><td>Ambiguous 1st</td><td>3</td><td>8</td><td>2</td><td></td><td>5</td><td>18</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ambiguous 2nd</td><td>1</td><td>0</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td>2</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="7"> </td></tr>
<tr><td>Concessive 1st</td><td>1</td><td>4</td><td></td><td>1</td><td>4</td><td>10</td></tr>
<tr><td>Concessive 2nd</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td><td>3</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="m10">Out of 147 instances of <span class="bQ">whereas</span>, 116 were pure contrast, 20 rather ambiguous, and 13 certainly seemed to express some sort of concession.</div>
<div class="m10">So we can say that just under 80% expressed pure contrast, of which the vast majority (85%) had the <span class="bQ">whereas</span>-clause in second position. </div>
<div class="m10">Of the remaining 20%, those <span class="bQ">whereas</span>-clauses which were rather ambiguous, or which I thought definitely expressed concession, around 85% of them came at the start of the sentence.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3 class="instr">Some examples of <em>whereas</em>-clauses from the media and the BNC</h3>
<h4 class="instr">Where they express pure contrast</h4>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10">The average London student pays £287 a week for essentials like accommodation, food, study materials and travel - <span class="lw"><span class="hl">whereas</span> Leicester students pay just fraction of this weekly sum at £167</span>. <br />
<span class="normal">(The Daily Telegraph)</span></li>
<li class="m10">They (women) see it (visiting the doctor) as a question of maintenance, <span class="lw"><span class="hl">whereas</span> men see it as a question of repair</span>. <br />
<span class="normal">(The Guardian)</span>
</li>
<li class="m10">Part of the problem, he said, was that the climate sceptic lobby employed communications professionals, <span class="lw"><span class="hl">whereas</span> "scientists are just barely competent at communicating with the public and don't have the wherewithal to do it</span>." <br />
<span class="normal">(The Independent)</span>
</li>
<li class="m10">The more prestigious (private schools) such as Eton, Harrow and Winchester can afford to charge annual fees in excess of £4,000 (more than $6,000 in 1983 terms), <span class="lw"><span class="hl">whereas</span> some less prestigious day schools may charge less than £1,000 per year</span>. <br />
<span class="normal">(British National Corpus - NB these figures are much higher today!)</span>
</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Whereas</span> some Italian coaches are obsessed by formation, strategy and shape</span>, the Real Madrid manager has a more relaxed approach that concentrates on maximising individual talent. <br />
<span class="normal">(The Guardian)
</span>
</li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Where they suggest a strong element of concession</h4>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Whereas</span> most modern performance cars encourage aggression through their virulence</span>, the Stag suppresses it while getting there just as quickly. <br />
<span class="normal">(British National Corpus)
<div class="expl">Here, the writer is not simply contrasting the (Triumph) Stag - a British sports car produced in the 1970s - with another sports car, but is suggesting that it was different from most other 'modern' sports cars. In this way the information about the Stag is slightly surprising or unexpected, so I think we can talk of concession here.</div> </span>
</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Whereas</span> the French Ministry of Culture alone has 7,000 officials</span>, the entire European Commission has less than double (12,911) to deal with all policies. <br />
<span class="normal">(British National Corpus)
<div class="expl">In this example, the concession comes from the writer's implying that the European commission is surprisingly small when compared with national governments - the key word here is <span class="bQ">alone</span>.</div></span>
</li>
<li><span class="lw">Yet <span class="hl">whereas</span> US GDP stands roughly where it was just before the financial crisis broke</span>, the UK's GDP is some 4pc below. Why the difference? <br />
<span class="normal">(The Guardian)
<div class="expl">I think there is concession here (strengthened by that opening <span class="bQ">'yet'</span>) in that the writer seems rather surprised that the UK's GDP is so low compared with that of the US.</div></span>
</li>
<li><span class="lw"><span class="hl">Whereas</span> only four per cent of people at any one time have major depression</span>, around one third suffer symptoms of the minor variety. <br />
<span class="normal">(The Guardian)
<div class="expl">Considering how few people suffer from major depression, it is perhaps surprising (concession) that as many as a third suffer from minor depression.</div></span>
</li>
<li>I think women in sport are perceived as being not very feminine, not very girly, <span class="lw"><span class="hl">whereas</span> we can be</span>. <br />
<span class="normal">(The Guardian)
<div class="expl">A rare example of a <span class="bQ">whereas</span>-clause used for concession appearing in second position. The information in the whereas-clause is contrary to the general perception (<span class="bQ">although</span> would fit here) - hence the concession. </div></span>
</li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Other (ambiguous) examples of <em>whereas</em>-clauses in first position</h4>
<ul class="bQl">
<li class="m10"><span class="lw">But <span class="hl">whereas</span> Bristol's A&E (Accident and Emegency) departments are filling up by midnight with fight injuries</span>, you rarely see as much as a scuffle in Bilbao. <br />
<span class="normal">(The Guardian)<br />
<div class="expl">Here, the writer is comparing alcohol use among young people in Southern European with that of the British, the main subject of his article. The information in the main clause contrasts with the general theme of his article - that (in Britain) alcohol and violence often go together.</div></span>
</li>
<li class="m10">They ate dairy products, <span class="lw">but <span class="hl">whereas</span> much of it in Jamaica was home-reared</span>, ours comes, less healthily, from mass production. <br />
<span class="normal">(The Guardian)<br />
<div class="expl">The author (a British journalist of Jamaican descent) is comparing what Jamaican emmigrants ('they') ate back home in Jamaica with what they now eat in Britain. The information in the <span class="bQ">whereas</span>-clause is rather positive, whereas that in the main clause is rather negative.</div></span>
</li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Reference</h4>
<div class="m10">As there is very little about the exact uses of <span class="bQ">while</span> and <span class="bQ">whereas</span> in standard EFL and ESL resources, I've relied heavily on <em>A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</em>, by Quirk, Greenbaum and others.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3 class="instr">A note on the relative use of concession words and expressions</h3>
<div class="m10">The figures from <em>Wordcount.org</em> shows how common a word is (the lower figures being the most common). The figures for the BNC show how many instances of a word or expression there are in the British National Corpus, a collection taken from various modern texts (mainly from the 1970s and 1980s), amounting to around 100 million words.</div>
<div class="m10"><table class="grammarTable" style="margin:10px auto;">
<tr><td></td><td>Wordcount.org</td><td>BNC</td></tr>
<tr><td>however</td><td>147</td><td>50,690</td></tr>
<tr><td>although</td><td>194</td><td>42,736</td></tr>
<tr><td>though</td><td>252</td><td>43,736</td></tr>
<tr><td>despite</td><td>673</td><td>14,356</td></tr>
<tr><td>even if</td><td>-</td><td>8565</td></tr>
<tr><td>nevertheless</td><td>1424</td><td>7038</td></tr>
<tr><td>whereas</td><td>1646</td><td>6,163</td></tr>
<tr><td>even though</td><td>-</td><td>5751</td></tr>
<tr><td>in spite of</td><td>-</td><td>2708</td></tr>
<tr><td>even so</td><td>-</td><td>1419</td></tr>
<tr><td>albeit</td><td>5592</td><td>1383</td></tr>
<tr><td>nonetheless</td><td>-</td><td>1295</td></tr>
<tr><td>all the same</td><td>-</td><td>1031</td></tr>
<tr><td>no matter how</td><td>-</td><td>1005</td></tr>
<tr><td>no matter what</td><td>-</td><td>559</td></tr>
</table></div>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">However, although, though, despite, nevertheless, whereas</span> all have a three star rating at <em>Macmillan Dictionary </em>and are included in the <em>The Oxford 3000 <sup><small>TM</small></sup></em> of most common words.</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">Whereas, despite, nevertheless, nonetheless, albeit</span> also appear in the <em>Academic Word List</em>.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3 class="instr">Answers and printing</h3>
<div class="m10">
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<h3><span class="instr">Related posts</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/as-very-similar-expressions-are-used-to.html">Cause and effect, result and reason</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/as-very-similar-expressions-are-used-to.html">Time clauses</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/07/exploring-grammar-types-of-clause-and.html">Clauses and how they are linked</a></li>
</ul>
<h3 class="instr">Links</h3>
<h4><span class="instr">Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Usage Notes</span></h4>
<div class="m10">There are useful notes on contrast and concession at these entries.</div>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://oald8.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/dictionary/although">although</a></li>
<li><a href="http://oald8.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/dictionary/whereas">whereas</a></li>
<li><a href="http://oald8.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/dictionary/nevertheless">nevertheless</a></li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">Although, despite etc</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv41.shtml">BBC Learning English 41</a></li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">While and whereas</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv69.shtml">BBC Learning English 69</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv288.shtml">BBC Learning English 288</a></li>
</ul>
<h4><span class="instr">Yes, But arguing</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://minnetesol.org/blog1/minnewitesol-2011/home/yes-but-arguing-in-reading-and-writing/">Yes, But arguing</a> - Minnesota and Wisconsin Tesol Journal</li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr"><em>if not</em></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.grammarphobia.com/blog/2013/10/if-not.html">Grammarphobia</a></li>
<li><a href="http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/ifnot.html">WSU Common Errors</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2012/10/ambiguity">The Economist</a></li>
</ul>
<h4><span class="instr">Various</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://motivatedgrammar.wordpress.com/2008/08/14/despite-and-in-spite-of-a-grammatical-detective-story/">Motivated Grammar</a> - Is there any difference between <span class="bQ">in spite of</span> and <span class="bQ">despite</span>? A linguist's thoughts.</li>
<li><a href="http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/although-versus-while">Grammar Girl</a> - <span class="bQ">while</span> and <span class="bQ">although</span></li>
<li><a href="http://www.anglisci.pl/interviews/some-questions-on-popular-english-songs-teaching-in-efl-classroom.html">anglisci.pl</a></li>
</ul>
<h4 class="instr">At Google Books</h4>
<div class="m10">These are only extracts. At the time of publishing this post, the relevant sections were available for viewing.</div>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=gaWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA38">Oxford A-Z of Grammar</a>, John Seely</li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=WCCk829jmzUC&pg=PA555">The Teacher's Grammar of English</a>, Ron Cowan</li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=RkIO04Jjvu0C&pg=PA159">Active Grammar Level 3 </a>, Mark Lloyd, Jeremy Day</li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=5NIWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113">A Communicative Grammar of English</a>, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik</li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=XA1_4gnxfUQC&pg=PA451">Linguistic Perspectives on English Grammar: A Guide for EFL Teachers</a>, Martin J. Endley - <span class="bQ">even if / even though</span></li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=FwmQpyibKkAC&pg=PA859">Garner's Modern American Usage</a> - <span class="bQ">while</span></li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com9tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-47188439476430012912014-08-10T13:28:00.000+02:002014-08-10T13:28:05.436+02:00Random thoughts on 'Kiss me quick'<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv"><div class="m10">Preparing a possible post on flat adverbs (adverbs that take the same form as their adjective equivalents) I started wondering about the origins of the expression <span class="bQ">'Kiss me quick'</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">In Britain, <span class="bQ">'Kiss me quick'</span> is perhaps best known from being printed on hats traditionally worn at seaside resorts such as Blackpool, but the origins seem likely to be American.</div>
<div class="m10">Clicking on the clippings will take you to the original at Google Books.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The eighteenth century - a country dance, perhaps?</h3>
<div class="m10">The first mention I can find at Google Books is from 1795, from '<em>A letter composed of the names of country dances</em>', published in the New-York Magazine of that year.</div>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=JD8oAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22kiss%20me%20quick%22&pg=PA402&ci=528%2C731%2C401%2C115&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=JD8oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA402&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U2z4UHzM9fCJvPunqZfd8MDD4k38g&ci=528%2C731%2C401%2C115&edge=0"/></a><p><em>The New-York Magazine</em>, 1795</p></div>
<div class="m10">My assumption is that the use of italics indicates that <em>Larry Grogan</em>, <em>Jenny, come tye my bonny cravat</em> and <em>kiss me quick my mother's coming</em> are all the names of country dances.</div>
<h4>Or a bawdy ballad?</h4>
<div class="m10">I can find no other reference to <em>kiss me quick my mother's coming</em> as a dance, but there are a couple to it as a colonial ballad of rather ill repute, being compared with other bawdy tavern songs with titles such as 'Our Polly is a Sad Slut', 'Bonny Lass under a blanket' and 'Sweetest When She's Naked' (<a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=8Ec83132qrwC&q=%22kiss+me+quick+my+mother%27s+coming%22&dq=%22kiss+me+quick+my+mother%27s+coming%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=MhDeU4TmL8a_ygPE34DAAQ&redir_esc=y"><em>History of Music in American Life</em>, Ronald L. Davis, 1980</a> (quoting colonial historian Max Savelle, 1948)</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The nineteenth century - a perfume or bar of soap</h3>
<div class="m10">This is from a letter to Punch Magazine 1800 - <span class="bQ">To these insidious inventions will also doubtless be added 'Rondeletia,' 'Fairy Bouquet,' 'Eau de Bully,' 'Wood Violets 'and 'Jockey Club Perfume,' and most of the other scents which are recommended for the boudoir, inclusive of 'Kiss-me-Quick'</span> (<a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=eFQPAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA241&dq=%22kiss+me+quick%22+punch&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yxbeU4q9MO-h7AaZ1oHQBA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22kiss%20me%20quick%22%20punch&f=false">GB</a>). And indeed it can be found as the name of a soap on both sides of the Atlantic:</div>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=qWIDAAAAQAAJ&dq=bradshaw%20%22kiss%20me%20quick%22&pg=RA1-PA77&ci=74%2C718%2C857%2C136&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=qWIDAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA77&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U2Sj03ZlxxIfQFb_YvNFGSwIgyufQ&ci=74%2C718%2C857%2C136&edge=0"/></a><p>Advertisement in <em>Bradshaw's</em> London, 1857</p></div>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=Xs8BAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22kiss%20me%20quick%22&pg=PA188&ci=505%2C164%2C374%2C470&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=Xs8BAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA188&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U0pqArGDWzAKdpKQX_VzK4DpYdeDQ&ci=505%2C164%2C374%2C470&edge=0" style="height:300"/></a><p>Advertisement in <em>The Journal of Materia Medica</em>, New York, 1858</p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Early nineteenth century - various</h3>
<div class="m10">There are few other examples of <span class="bQ">'kiss me quick'</span> from the beginning of the nineteenth century</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Kiss me quick and resolute. So adieu, signior.<br />
<span>John Ford, Edinburgh 1811</span></li>
<li>Kiss me quick, my Minnie's coming<br />
<span>song listed in a collection from 1824</span></li>
<li>“I forgot to thank you,” said she, “for the double cowslips ; look how pretty they are. and smell how sweet the violets are in my bosom, and kiss me quick, for I shall be left behind.” Susan kissed the little breathless girl ... <br />
<span>Parent's Assistant, by Maria Edgeworth, Boston 1826</span></li>
<li>Kiss me quick! Kiss me Gerald<br />
<span>from The Last Desmonds; or the Graves of a Household (United States Review 1843)</span></li>
<li>Kiss-me-quick<br />
<span>the name of a racehorse which came third in the Derby ands Oaks Stakes of 1848</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Mid nineteenth century - a kind of bonnet</h3>
<div class="m10">In the <em>Dictionary of Americanisms</em>, New York, 1848, a kiss-me-quick is described as 'A homemade quilted bonnet which does not extend beyond the face. They are chiefly used to cover the head by ladies when going to parties, or the theatre.' (<a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=qfVIAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA230&dq=%22kiss+me+quick%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=tSneU9P7BInH7AaemIHYBg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22kiss%20me%20quick%22&f=false">GB</a>)</div>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=RtsOAAAAYAAJ&dq=sam%20slick%20human%20nature&pg=PA287&ci=115%2C668%2C693%2C764&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=RtsOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U28ERppdtU37HNOEyN3lp2HeI9z_Q&ci=115%2C668%2C693%2C764&edge=0"/></a><p><em>Nature and Human Nature</em>, by Thomas Chandler Haliburton, London 1855</p></div>
<div class="m10">There are quite a few references at Google Books to this meaning:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>but as Susannah did not obey, he took the trouble to peer at her face half hidden by a large "kiss-me-quick".<br />
<span>Rural Repository, Hudson, NY, 1844 </span></li>
<li>Seen from the Bowery, it looks like a barn with a 'kiss-me-quick' hood on<br />
<span><em>The Knickerbocker</em>, New York, 1844</span></li>
<li>There is a wide scope for coquettish taste in the arrangement of different wraps. Cloak hoods are sometimes used; again the veritable 'kiss-me-quick,' is seen.<br />
<span><em>The Ladies' National Magazine</em>, Philadelphia, 1848</span></li>
<li>The gaudy Kiss-me-quick bonnet had been exchanged for a neat straw cottage one <br />
<span><em>Ainsworth's Magazine</em>, London, 1851</span></li>
<li>The southern ladies have got up a bonnet as an offset to the " kiss-me-quick," and the " hold-me-fast," of the north. They call it the "No-you-don't"<br />
<span><em>Yankee Notions, or the whittling of of Jonathan's Jack-knife</em>, New York, 1852</span></li>
<li>"Goodness gracious!' shreaked her ladyship, 'What a bird! I shall die if I do not get a couple of feathers from its tail for my new "kiss-me- quick" and "wide-awake"! ' <br />
<span><em>The Knickerbocke</em>r, New York, 1853</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But it seems that by 1851, it was already being considered old-fashioned</div>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=GC0aAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22kiss%20me%20quick%22&pg=PA292&ci=140%2C1091%2C745%2C253&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=GC0aAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA292&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U0_LrlpKCesDJmJahT06aWejfaLMA&ci=140%2C1091%2C745%2C253&edge=0"/></a><p><em>The New Monthly Magazine</em>, London 1851</p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Various from the mid-nineteenth century</h3>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=4KdcAAAAcAAJ&dq=%22kiss%20me%20quick%22&pg=PR54&ci=251%2C877%2C526%2C266&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=4KdcAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR54&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U3s9sREDhws1WhtRthN2KcxIIjj1w&ci=251%2C877%2C526%2C266&edge=0"/></a><p><em>Appendix to the Arcana of Christianity. The Song of Satan</em>, by Thomas Lake Harris, New York 1858</p></div>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=XNhUAAAAcAAJ&dq=%22kiss%20me%20quick%22&pg=PA11&ci=82%2C719%2C816%2C231&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=XNhUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA11&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U1swgBJZoTG_78g78IRDyo-cog3KA&ci=82%2C719%2C816%2C231&edge=0"/></a><p><em>The Maid and the Magpie</em> (A burlesque), by Henry James Byron, London 1858</p></div>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=fNMBAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22kiss%20me%20quick%22&pg=PA275&ci=90%2C1180%2C788%2C85&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=fNMBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA275&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U0NTp33sApxM06JIbV-LKS8bOJmxg&ci=90%2C1180%2C788%2C85&edge=0"/></a><p><em>White lies</em>, Volume 1, by Charles Reade, London 1857</p></div>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=YBdAAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22kiss%20me%20quick%22&pg=PA280&ci=277%2C1093%2C457%2C149&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=YBdAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA280&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U2yk-t7QZqVlZSRqprnzo-R4qNRkA&ci=277%2C1093%2C457%2C149&edge=0"/></a><p><em>The Tour in the Hartz</em> (song), by Heinrich Heine, (translated John E Wallis 1856)</p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>Kiss Me Quick and Go</em> - from negro melody to rockabilly</h3>
<h4>The New Orleans original</h4>
<div class="m10">Written by S.S.Steele and Frederick Buckley, this was sung by Buckley's New Orleans Serenaders, and published in New York in 1853. Buckley's Serenaders were a very successful group and were called the first group 'to harmonize Negro Melodies'. Their success went well beyond their home country, and they toured Britain in 1846, appearing, for example, at Drury Lane. Their music also extended to what they called 'Ethiopean entertainments' and operatic burlesque.</div>
<div class="m10">The song starts:</div>
<div class="cite4">
Oh de other night while I was sparking<br />
My Sweet Tarlina Spray<br />
De more we whispered our love talking<br />
De more we had to say.
</div>
<div class="m10">And the chorus goes:</div>
<div class="cite4">Kiss me quick and go, my honey!<br />
Kiss me quick and go,<br />
To cheat surprise and prying eyes,<br />
Why, kiss me quick and go.
</div>
<h4>A Dickens connection?</h4>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=iUNcjb1MbHAC&dq=%22Kiss%20me%20quick%20and%20go%22%20dickens&pg=PA108&ci=140%2C890%2C764%2C584&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=iUNcjb1MbHAC&pg=PA108&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U1Ky9XZ1JTHaMFCg2lW9UfglTPQ_w&ci=140%2C890%2C764%2C584&edge=0"/></a><p><em>Charles Dickens: A Sketch of His Life and Works</em>, by Frederic Beecher Perkins, Hippolyte Taine, New York 1870</p></div>
<h4>The rockabilly adaptation</h4>
<div class="m10">This seems to have originated in the 1920s with the Georgia Yellow Hammers, but also recorded by The Maddox Bros and Rose in 1953. Although the verses and chorus are different from the Buckleys' song, the subject matter is similar, and it seems that Steele and Buckley were credited as writers, together with Bud Landress, who arranged it.</div>
<div class="cite4">On the porch while we sat spoonin'<br />
Softly whispering', always coonin'<br />
Thought the old folks and the children were in bed<br />
I heard footsteps softly walkin'<br />
And you bet I then quit talkin'<br />
And she hist a little and squivered up and said</div>
<div class="m10">The chorus has definite echos of the original:</div>
<div class="cite4">Kiss me quick and go away<br />
And no-one will ever know<br />
It's too late to longer stay<br />
Kiss me quick, my honey<br />
Oh, kiss me quick and go</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The 1960s - Elvis Presley (and Karen Lane)</h3>
<div class="m10">Elvis Presley had a Number One in Europe hit in 1962 with 'Kiss Me Quick', written by Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman. It is completely different from the previous songs, and was covered by, amongst others, Brendan Bower with the Royal Showband, Waterford. Here's the first verse:</div>
<div class="cite4">Kiss me quick, while we still have this feeling<br />
Hold me close and never let me go<br />
'Cause tomorrows can be so uncertain<br />
Love can fly and leave just hurting<br />
Kiss me quick because I love you so</div>
<div class="m10">A certain Karen Lake also recorded a song, "Kiss me quick and go" (unrelated to the previous one), written by H. David, L.Clark, and released around 1960.</div>
<div class="cite4">I hear my daddy knocking on the floor<br />
My mother's looking in and out the door<br />
You'd better kiss me quick, quick, kiss me quick and go<br />
You'd better quick, quick, kiss me quick and go</div>
</div>
<h3>Links</h3>
<h4>The Buckleys and their version</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=ODVYAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA18&dq=%22kiss+me+quick+and+go%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=rwjeU5nyDYXT7AbryYG4Dw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22kiss%20me%20quick%20and%20go%22&f=false">Buckley's Ethiopean Melodies</a>, New York 1853, with a good introduction about the Buckleys.</li>
<li><a href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=amss&fileName=hc/hc00034a/amsspage.db&recNum=0&itemLink=h?ammem/amss:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28hc00034a%29%29">American Memory</a> - nineteenth century songsheet</li>
</ul>
<h4>The Rockabilly song</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pfukyYSyGRw">The Georgia Yellow Hammers</a>, 1920s?</li>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nexURDnYAew">Maddox Bros and Rose</a>, 1953</li>
<li><a href="http://mudcat.org/thread.cfm?threadid=42268">Mudcat</a> - forum discussion on the origins</li>
<li><a href="http://victor.library.ucsb.edu/index.php/matrix/detail/800021122/BVE-47193-Kiss_me_quick">Victor Discography</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>The 1960s</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiss_Me_Quick_%28song%29">Wikipedia - Elvis song</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VPDY8NU3N0o">YouTube - Elvis song</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QRQxNyooT7o">YouTube - the Karen Lane song</a></li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-24039942237092734982014-07-06T14:12:00.000+02:002014-08-23T01:53:45.356+02:00Random thoughts on 'bites as bad as it barks'<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">BMW are running an ad for their 2 Series Coupé with this slogan:</div>
<div class="cite4" style="text-align:center;font-family:arial;"><h3>Bites as bad as it barks</h3></div>
<div class="m10">A certain fifteen-year-old, Albert Gifford, who is making something of a name for himself for taking large companies to task for their grammar, wrote a series of emails to BMW, reprinted in The Daily Mail, complaining that <span class="bQ">bad</span> wasn't an adverb, and <span class="bQ">'so cannot be used in this context'</span>. But is he right? </div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The standard rule</h3>
<div class="m10">Let's make one thing clear, especially for any foreign learners reading this. In standard English, both formal and spoken, we have two sets of adjective and adverb opposites:</div>
<table class="grammarTable" style="margin:10px auto;">
<tr><td class="instr">adjective</td><td>good, better, (the) best<br />
<span class="bQ">Tom's a very good driver</span></td><td>bad, worse, (the) worst<br />
<span class="bQ">Dick's a really bad driver</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="instr">adverb</td><td>bad, worse, worst<br />
<span class="bQ">Tom drives really well</span></td><td>badly, worse, worst<br />
<span class="bQ">Dick drives incredibly badly</span></td></tr>
</table>
<div class="m10">And of course I'd advise any learners to stick to those forms. But ...</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Can <em>bad</em> be an adverb?</h3>
<div class="m10">In his third email, young Mr Gifford stated:</div>
<div class="cite4">In no well-known saying is 'bad' used as an adverb. You can look it up in a dictionary if you like, and it will describe it as an ADJECTIVE (and maybe even a noun), which it is.</div>
<div class="m10">(Eagle-eyed advanced students will have noticed the nifty bit of negative inversion here.)</div>
<div class="m10">It's perhaps a shame he didn't follow his own advice. Of course all dictionaries do list <span class="bQ">bad</span> as an adjective, but all six British dictionaries I checked also have a listing for <span class="bQ">bad</span> as an adverb, meaning <span class="bQ">badly</span>, although they tend to qualify it as North American and informal. Macmillan and Longman warn that some people consider it incorrect and Collins calls it non-standard.</div>
<div class="m10">This informal use of <span class="bQ">bad</span> instead of <span class="bQ">badly</span> is quite common in popular music, for example:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>Love you so bad<span class="normal"> - The Empires 1950s</span></li>
<li>I want you so bad<span class="normal"> - James Brown 1959</span></li>
<li>(I Love You) So Bad<span class="normal"> - Paul McCartney 1983</span></li>
<li>How bad do you want it<span class="normal"> - Tim McGraw 2004</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In each of these we could substitute <span class="bQ">badly</span> for <span class="bQ">bad</span> without changing the meaning, but look what happens when we do that to the BMW slogan</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>Bites as badly as it barks</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">As Tom Freeman at <em>The Stroppy Editor</em> blog points out, this would suggest that the Series 2 Coupé neither bites well nor barks well; not quite what BMW had in mind, perhaps.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>A play on words</h3>
<div class="m10">The BMW ad is of course a play on the well-known idiom:</div>
<div class="m10" style="text-align:center;font-family:arial;"><h4>His bark is worse than his bite</h4></div>
<div class="m10">When we say this of someone we mean that they look and sound fiercer that they really are, and their actions are not as threatening as their words. But there's a variation, where <span class="bQ">bite</span> is perhaps closer to the meaning in the BMW slogan.</div>
<div class="m10" style="text-align:center;font-family:arial;"><h4>All bark and no bite</h4></div>
<div class="m10">This can have a similar meaning to the first idiom, but it can also mean something like <span class="bQ">'all words but no action'</span> - someone speaks tough but does nothing - they don't <span class="bQ">'walk the talk'</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">In the video, the sound effects make the idiomatic reference perfectly clear. One interpretation could be that <span class="bQ">bark</span> refers to the throaty roar of the engine, and <span class="bQ">bite</span> to the car's performance. In other words, it performs as well as it sounds.</div>
<div class="m10">
<iframe width="560" height="315" src="http://www.youtube.com/embed/vzbhh_f1bjA" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="yes"></iframe>
</div>
<div class="m10">But hang on, am I now saying that <span class="bQ">bad</span> here really means <span class="bQ">well</span>? Well, yes I am: the ad is really saying that this model <span class="bQ">bites as well as it barks</span>, which is why <span class="bQ">badly</span> just wouldn't make any sense here. Perhaps realising this, Gifford suggests using <span class="bQ">fiercely</span> instead, but that would lose the whole point of the play on words. So can <span class="bQ">bad</span> indeed mean <span class="bQ">well</span> (or <span class="bQ">good</span>)?</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Bad, badder, baddest</h3>
<div class="m10">There's a famous line spoken by American actress Mae West in the 1933 movie <em>I'm No Angel</em> (link to YouTube extract below):
</div>
<div class="cite4">When I'm good, I'm very good, but when I'm bad, I'm better.</div>
<div class="m10">This is from the Oxford Dictionaries Online entry on <span class="bQ">bad</span>:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">(badder, baddest) informal , chiefly North American </div>
<div class="m10">Good; excellent:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>they want the baddest, best-looking Corvette there is</li>
<li>It was the baddest car I'd ever seen and I promised myself right then that one day I'd have one just like it.’</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="m10">And here's a question at Yahoo Answers:</div>
<div class="cite4">Whats the sexiest, meanest, baddest looking car around?</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">Bad</span> means <span class="bQ">good</span> here, but in a special sense. It could be any of: sexy, raunchy, a bit naughty (in a nice way), cool, having street cred, etc. It seems to be especially used in informal American English to describe cars.</div>
<div class="m10">Now in all these cases <span class="bQ">bad</span> is an adjective, but just as we get the adverb set - <span class="bQ">badly, worse, worst</span> - from the standard adjective <span class="bQ">bad</span>, I think perhaps we can get another, albeit informal, adverb set - <span class="bQ">bad, badder, baddest</span> - from this meaning of <span class="bQ">bad</span>. And it is this sense that BMW is using - perhaps they could have said that <span class="bQ">it bites badder </span>(i.e. performs better) <span class="bQ">than other cars in its class</span>. But that would probably have been going too far.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The problem with this sort of pedantry</h3>
<div class="m10">Although young Mr Gifford confesses to be a pedant, even seems proud to be one, I won't go that far, but I will call his complaint pedantry. There are a few features people who like to complain about what they perceive as grammar mistakes often have in common:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="normal">They often have an incomplete knowledge of the relevant grammar - Mr Gifford seems unaware that dictionaries do in fact list <span class="bQ">bad</span> as an adverb.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">They rarely make any distinctions of register, recognising only what is acceptable in formal usage as 'correct'</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">They seem unaware of how language is used idiomatically, and especially of nuance - that words can have different meanings to their standard ones.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">And in this case, apparently, a lack of the sense of how language can be played with to humorous effect.</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Advertisers and language</h3>
<div class="m10">Advertisers have an honourable history of bending the rules and getting away with it. This is because, I would suggest, they tend to have a much better language awareness than the pedants, and are much more in touch with how people actually talk. They can also be, of course, deliberately 'edgy', knowing that the resulting controversy can only increase their publicity. But they have to strike a balance - it can annoy the pedants, but it must also sound acceptable to the rest of us. Here are a few examples:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Winston tastes good like a cigarette should - Winston<br />
<span class="normal">The use of <span class="bQ">like</span> as a conjunction, instead of <span class="bQ">as</span>, shocked some purists, but it became one of the most successful ads ever. Many of us use <span class="bQ">like</span> as a conjunction imformally.</span></li>
<li>I'm Lovin it<span class="normal"> - McDonalds<br />
The purists maintain that <span class="bQ">love</span> is a state verb and so cannot be used in the continuous, but when <span class="bQ">love</span> really means <em>'enjoy a temporary situation'</em> it's quite often used this way - </span>I'm really loving my new job.</li>
<li>Think different<span class="normal"> - Apple<br />
The purists would prefer <span class="bQ">think differently</span>, but Jobs apparently wanted something idiomatic like <span class="bQ">'think big'</span></span>.</li>
<li>Got milk?<span class="normal"> - California Milk Processing Board<br />
This is really just an ellipsis of <span class="bQ">'Have you got milk?'</span> but it apparently annoyed some people.</span> </li>
<li>I wish I was in Egypt<span class="normal"> - Egypt<br />
Purists would probably prefer the subjunctive - </span>I wish I were in Egypt.</li>
<li>Make Summer Funner<span class="normal"> - Target<br />
The grammatically correct version would be <span class="bQ">Make Summer More Fun</span>, but it wouldn't have quite the same ring. I think even purists can accept the joke here.</span></li>
<li>More power. More style. More technology. Less doors.<span class="normal"> - Mercedes C Class Coupé - <span class="bQ">fewer doors</span> for the purists</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>I feel bad</em> - when using <em>bad</em> with verbs is always OK</h3>
<div class="m10">We use <span class="bQ">bad</span> after certain linking verbs (or verbs used as linking verbs), where <span class="bQ">bad</span> refers to the subject, and is in fact an adjective, not an adverb. These verbs are usually related to the senses or to a change in state. </div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>I felt really bad about what I said to him.</li>
<li>This butter tastes bad.</li>
<li>That doesn't sound too bad.</li>
<li>The situation is looking pretty bad at the moment.</li>
<li>There's something in the fridge smelling really bad.</li>
<li>If the weather turns bad, we'll head back to the car.</li>
<li>How to tell if meat has gone bad.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">There's also the expression, usually used humorously, <span class="bQ">to have got it bad</span> - to be very much in love, or be in a bad situation.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>She's really got it bad for Peter.</li>
<li>If you think we've got it bad now, just wait till the winter comes.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Links</h3>
<h4>The young Mr Gifford and the BMW ad.</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2659053/Schoolboy-forced-Tesco-change-juice-cartons-poor-grammar-takes-BMW-new-advert.html">Daily Mail</a> - the original story, with all the emails</li>
<li><a href="http://stroppyeditor.wordpress.com/2014/06/18/bad-grammar/">The Stroppy Editor</a> - a copywriter's reaction</li>
<li><a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jun/19/grammar-pedant-tesco-english-language-orange-juice">The Guardian</a> - The young Mr Gifford explains himself</li>
</ul>
<h4>Definition of <em>bad</em>.</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/bad">Oxford Online</a> - definition</li>
</ul>
<h4>Idioms</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/bark+is+worse+than+bite">His bark is worse than his bite</a> - The Free Dictionary</li>
<li><a href="http://www.definition-of.com/all+bark+and+no+bite">All bark and no bite</a> - Definition</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>Feeling bad and feeling badly</em></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.pearsonlongman.com/ae/azar/grammar_ex/message_board/archive/articles/00075.htm">Pearson Longman</a></li>
<li><a href="http://data.grammarbook.com/blog/definitions/bad-vs-badly/">GrammarBook</a></li>
<li><a href="http://motivatedgrammar.wordpress.com/2011/08/18/on-feeling-good-well-bad-or-badly/">Motivated Grammar</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.dailywritingtips.com/bad-vs-badly/">Daily Writing Tips</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Advertising slogans at Wikipedia</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_tastes_good_like_a_cigarette_should">Winston tastes good like a cigarette should</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think_different">Think different</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Got_Milk%3F">Got milk?</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27m_lovin_it">I'm lovin' it</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Advertising and language</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2011/10/language-of-advertising-slogans/">Oxford Dictionaries Blog</a></li>
<li><a href="http://advertising.about.com/od/copywriting/a/Grammar-Do-Not-Matter.htm">About.com</a></li>
<li><a href="http://nancyfriedman.typepad.com/away_with_words/2011/11/how-bad-is-bad-grammar-in-ads.html">Nancy Friedman</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Ads etc at You Tube</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apD9_hLxqE0">Winston 1955</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nmwXdGm89Tk">Apple - Think different 1997</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ZdALTZ6aA8">McDonalds - I'm Lovin'it</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IJHxsAhjKAA">Got milk?</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZnFDaMRq6_I">Mercedes - Less doors</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l5_T-KaWTfs">I wish I was in Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cxF_V90s9g8">When I'm bad, I'm better</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Flat adverbs</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7epnfcHy5SA">In praise of flat adverbs</a> - Merriam-Webster Dictionary - Ask the Editor</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_adverb">Wikipedia</a></li>
<li><a href="http://grammar.about.com/od/fh/g/flatadverbterm.htm">About.com</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.dailywritingtips.com/flat-adverbs-are-flat-out-useful/">Daily Writing Tips</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Other</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.arrantpedantry.com/2013/11/18/12-mistakes-nearly-everyone-who-writes-about-grammar-mistakes-makes/">Twelve mistakes that nearly everyone who writes aboot grammar mistakes makes</a> - Arrant pedantry</li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-55894038144003491762014-06-22T16:34:00.000+02:002014-06-22T17:21:43.430+02:00Confusing words - near, nearby, close, next<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">Students sometimes get confused when to use <span class="bQ">near</span> or <span class="bQ">nearby</span>, <span class="bQ">near (to)</span> or <span class="bQ">close to</span>, and <span class="bQ">nearest</span> or <span class="bQ">next</span>. Master the differences with these three exercises.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Near and nearby</h3>
<div class="m10">Both <span class="bQ">near</span> and <span class="bQ">nearby</span> can be used as adjectives and adverbs to mean close in position, a short distance from somebody or something, not far away. </div>
<h4>Nearby</h4>
<div class="m10in">If we want to use a simple adjective or adverb to describe nearness, we use <span class="bQ">nearby</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>My parents live in a nearby village.</li>
<li>They live nearby.</li>
<li>The village where thy live is nearby.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Note that <span class="bQ">nearby</span> can be used before or after a noun.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>We ate at a nearby pub.</li>
<li>We ate at a pub nearby.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Near</h4>
<div class="m10in">If we use a modifier such as <span class="bQ">quite, very</span> etc with an adverb or after the verb <span class="bQ">be</span> we usually use <span class="bQ">near</span>. </div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>My parents live very near.</li>
<li>The village where they live is very near.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">We usually only use <span class="bQ">near</span> as an adjective to refer closeness of time but not to closeness of position, except in superlatives and when we are comparing <span class="bQ">near</span> with <span class="bQ">far</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>I'll be seeing him in the near future.</li>
<li>The nearest garage is miles away.</li>
<li>The near side of the Moon.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">Near</span>, but not <span class="bQ">nearby</span>, can also be used as a preposition.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>They live very near us.</li>
<li>The village they live in is quite near us.</li>
<li>Our son's school is quite near our house.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div id="exDiv3" class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<table class="exHdr"><tbody><tr><td class="num">Exercise 1</td><td>Choose the correct word to fill the gap<span class="noprint"><br />
<span style="color:red">Click or tap on the appropriate word</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table class="matchTable"><tbody><tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">1. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">The people sitting <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap0"></span> were making a lot of noise.</td><td id="ex3TickBox0"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,0,1)"><span id="ex3Q0Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,0,2)"><span id="ex3Q0Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">2. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">That sounded rather <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap1"></span>!</td><td id="ex3TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,1,1)"><span id="ex3Q1Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,1,2)"><span id="ex3Q1Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">3. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">They live somewhere <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap2"></span> the next roundabout.</td><td id="ex3TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,2,1)"><span id="ex3Q2Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,2,2)"><span id="ex3Q2Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">4. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">I noticed someone standing <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap3"></span> staring at me.</td><td id="ex3TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,3,1)"><span id="ex3Q3Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,3,2)"><span id="ex3Q3Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">5. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">There are plenty of shops <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap4"></span> where we live.</td><td id="ex3TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,4,1)"><span id="ex3Q4Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,4,2)"><span id="ex3Q4Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">6. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">Don't worry! The car's parked quite <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap5"></span>!</td><td id="ex3TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,5,1)"><span id="ex3Q5Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,5,2)"><span id="ex3Q5Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">7. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">We could see cows grazing in a <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap6"></span> field.</td><td id="ex3TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,6,1)"><span id="ex3Q6Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,6,2)"><span id="ex3Q6Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">8. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">There are several shops <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap7"></span>.</td><td id="ex3TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,7,1)"><span id="ex3Q7Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,7,2)"><span id="ex3Q7Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">9. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">She warned the children not to go <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap8"></span> the canal.</td><td id="ex3TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,8,1)"><span id="ex3Q8Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,8,2)"><span id="ex3Q8Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">10. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">I wonder if there's a pub <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap9"></span>. I could murder a beer.</td><td id="ex3TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,9,1)"><span id="ex3Q9Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,9,2)"><span id="ex3Q9Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">11. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">Are you going anywhere <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap10"></span> the city centre?</td><td id="ex3TickBox10"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,10,1)"><span id="ex3Q10Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,10,2)"><span id="ex3Q10Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">12. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">A bird was singing somewhere <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap11"></span>.</td><td id="ex3TickBox11"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,11,1)"><span id="ex3Q11Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,11,2)"><span id="ex3Q11Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">13. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">We heard voices as we drew <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap12"></span> the village.</td><td id="ex3TickBox12"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,12,1)"><span id="ex3Q12Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,12,2)"><span id="ex3Q12Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">14. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">From a <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap13"></span> building we could hear the sound of a fire alarm.</td><td id="ex3TickBox13"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,13,1)"><span id="ex3Q13Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,13,2)"><span id="ex3Q13Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">15. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">We're all meeting at that pub <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex3gap14"></span> the station.</td><td id="ex3TickBox14"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,14,1)"><span id="ex3Q14Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(3,14,2)"><span id="ex3Q14Opt2">nearby</span></a></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Notes on <em>nearby</em> and <em>near</em>.</h3>
<h4><em>Nearby</em> with the verb <em>be</em>.</h4>
<div class="m10in">We can use <span class="bQ">nearby</span> after <span class="bQ">be</span>, but often prefer other constructions, such as <span class="bQ">there is/are</span> or, in a more formal style, putting <span class="bQ">nearby</span> at the beginning (fronting).</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>Several shops are nearby.</li>
<li>There are several shops nearby</li>
<li>Nearby are several shops.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Comparatives and superlatives</h4>
<div class="m10in">With comparatives or superlatives we always use <span class="bQ">near</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>I'm warning you - don't come any nearer!</li>
<li>She took a step nearer.</li>
<li>The nearest bus stop is a mile away.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10in">We can also use comparative and superlative forms as prepositions:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>Come and sit nearer (to) the fire.</li>
<li>Which bus stop is nearest (to) your house? </li>
</ul>
<h4>Both <span class="bQ">near</span> and <span class="bQ">nearby</span> are often used with <span class="bQ">somewhere</span> and <span class="bQ">anywhere</span>.</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>He must be somewhere nearby; he's only been gone a minute.</li>
<li>He heard a sound somewhere nearby, but wasn't sure where it it was coming from.</li>
<li>Is there a chemist's anywhere nearby?</li>
<li>They live somewhere near the next roundabout.</li>
<li>We heard a loud bang somewhere very near.</li>
<li>There isn't a cinema anywere near here.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Near and close</h3>
<div class="m10">The adjectives <span class="bQ">near</span> and <span class="bQ">close</span> often have the same meaning, but in some phrases only one may be used:</div>
<div id="exDiv1"><table class="exHdr"><tbody><tr><td class="num">Exercise 2</td><td>Use your instinct to choose the correct word to fill the gap<span class="noprint"><br />
<span style="color:red">Click or tap on the appropriate word</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table class="matchTable"><tbody><tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">1. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">I'll be seeing him in the the <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex1gap0"></span> future.</td><td id="ex1TickBox0"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,0,1)"><span id="ex1Q0Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,0,2)"><span id="ex1Q0Opt2">close</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">2. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">She had a <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex1gap1"></span> encounter with a ghost.</td><td id="ex1TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,1,1)"><span id="ex1Q1Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,1,2)"><span id="ex1Q1Opt2">close</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">3. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">They're <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex1gap2"></span> friends of my father's.</td><td id="ex1TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,2,1)"><span id="ex1Q2Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,2,2)"><span id="ex1Q2Opt2">close</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">4. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">He's a <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex1gap3"></span> neighbour of ours</td><td id="ex1TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,3,1)"><span id="ex1Q3Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,3,2)"><span id="ex1Q3Opt2">close</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">5. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">Phew! That was a <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex1gap4"></span> miss.</td><td id="ex1TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,4,1)"><span id="ex1Q4Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,4,2)"><span id="ex1Q4Opt2">close</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">6. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">They're a <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex1gap5"></span> family.</td><td id="ex1TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,5,1)"><span id="ex1Q5Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,5,2)"><span id="ex1Q5Opt2">close</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">7. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">The match was a <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex1gap6"></span> contest</td><td id="ex1TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,6,1)"><span id="ex1Q6Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,6,2)"><span id="ex1Q6Opt2">close</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">8. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">It was a <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex1gap7"></span> call.</td><td id="ex1TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,7,1)"><span id="ex1Q7Opt1">near</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(1,7,2)"><span id="ex1Q7Opt2">close</span></a></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkPickNDrop(1)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearPickNDrop(1)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="clearAndPrintExercise(1)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"><span id="messageArea1"></span></div></div>
<div class="m10">There's a useful usage note at <em>Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary</em> (link below).</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Near, by and next to</h3>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">By</span> and <span class="bQ">next to</span> are closer than <span class="bQ">near</span>. If they live near the park, it's probably within walking distance, but they can't necessarily see it. If they live by the park, their house is probably next to it.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>Their house is near the park.</li>
<li>Their house is by the park.</li>
<li>Their house is next to the park.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Nearest and next</h3>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">(The) nearest</span> means the closest in space, time or relationship, whereas <span class="nbQ">(the) next</span> means <em>'the one after this/that one'</em> in a series of events, places or people. There are a couple of fixed expressions where <span class="bQ">next</span> is also used for place.</div>
<div id="exDiv2"><table class="exHdr"><tbody><tr><td class="num">Exercise 3</td><td>Use your instinct to choose the correct word to fill the gap<span class="noprint"><br />
<span style="color:red">Click or tap on the appropriate word</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table class="matchTable"><tbody><tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">1. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">When is your <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex2gap0"></span> appointment?</td><td id="ex2TickBox0"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,0,1)"><span id="ex2Q0Opt1">nearest</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,0,2)"><span id="ex2Q0Opt2">next</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">2. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">Inverness, the <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex2gap1"></span> big town to the village, is twenty miles away.</td><td id="ex2TickBox1"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,1,1)"><span id="ex2Q1Opt1">nearest</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,1,2)"><span id="ex2Q1Opt2">next</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">3. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">When we get to the <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex2gap2"></span> services area we better stop for petrol.</td><td id="ex2TickBox2"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,2,1)"><span id="ex2Q2Opt1">nearest</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,2,2)"><span id="ex2Q2Opt2">next</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">4. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">Turn left at the <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex2gap3"></span> set of traffic lights after this one.</td><td id="ex2TickBox3"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,3,1)"><span id="ex2Q3Opt1">nearest</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,3,2)"><span id="ex2Q3Opt2">next</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">5. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">The <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex2gap4"></span> bus stop to the house is about a mile away.</td><td id="ex2TickBox4"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,4,1)"><span id="ex2Q4Opt1">nearest</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,4,2)"><span id="ex2Q4Opt2">next</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">6. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">We're getting off at the <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex2gap5"></span> stop.</td><td id="ex2TickBox5"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,5,1)"><span id="ex2Q5Opt1">nearest</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,5,2)"><span id="ex2Q5Opt2">next</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">7. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">Her <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex2gap6"></span> rival was six points behind her.</td><td id="ex2TickBox6"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,6,1)"><span id="ex2Q6Opt1">nearest</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,6,2)"><span id="ex2Q6Opt2">next</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">8. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">They live <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex2gap7"></span> door to us.</td><td id="ex2TickBox7"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,7,1)"><span id="ex2Q7Opt1">nearest</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,7,2)"><span id="ex2Q7Opt2">next</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">9. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">Come over here and sit <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex2gap8"></span> to me.</td><td id="ex2TickBox8"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,8,1)"><span id="ex2Q8Opt1">nearest</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,8,2)"><span id="ex2Q8Opt2">next</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">10. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">Do you know where the <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex2gap9"></span> supermarket is?</td><td id="ex2TickBox9"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,9,1)"><span id="ex2Q9Opt1">nearest</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,9,2)"><span id="ex2Q9Opt2">next</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">11. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">If you can't find any Roquefort, get the <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex2gap10"></span> best thing.</td><td id="ex2TickBox10"> </td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,10,1)"><span id="ex2Q10Opt1">nearest</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,10,2)"><span id="ex2Q10Opt2">next</span></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tdNum" style="vertical-align:middle;">12. </td><td style="padding-right:10px;">It was the <span class="dropGap" style="width:60px;" id="ex2gap11"></span> thing to Roquefort I could find.</td><td id="ex2TickBox11"></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td style="padding-bottom:10px;"><span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,11,1)"><span id="ex2Q11Opt1">nearest</span></a></span> - <span class="optionWord"><a href="javascript:enterMultiOption(2,11,2)"><span id="ex2Q11Opt2">next</span></a></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Check" onclick="checkPickNDrop(2)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear" onclick="clearPickNDrop(2)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Print" onclick="clearAndPrintExercise(2)" title="this allows for easy printing, saving (File - Save Page As) or copying into a Word document or similar (right click - Select All - Copy - Paste." type="button"><span id="messageArea2"></span></div></div>
<div class="m10">There's a useful usage note at <em>Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary</em> (link below).</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv" style="page-break-before:always;">
<h3>Notes on <em>nearest (to)</em> and <em>next to</em></h3>
<div class="m10">The prepositions <span class="bQ">nearest to</span> and <span class="bQ">next to</span> have a very similar meaning, but there's a small difference. </div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>It's in the drawer nearest (to) the fridge. <span class="normal">(= of all the drawers in the kitchen)</span></li>
<li>It's in the drawer next to the fridge. <span class="normal">(= right beside the fridge)</span></li>.
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>Near</em> or <em>near to</em>?</h3>
<div class="m10">In British English, the preposition <span class="bQ">near</span> can be used with or without <span class="bQ">to</span> (although <span class="bQ">to</span> seems uncommon in American English). When talking about about physical closeness we usually leave it off:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>The pub is very near the station.</li>
<li>Come and sit near me.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But when we are using <span class="bQ">near</span> more metaphorically, we prefer <span class="bQ">near to</span> (or <span class="bQ">close to</span>):</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>She was near to tears / close to tears</li>
<li>I came very near to / close to calling the whole thing off</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">We usually use <span class="bQ">nearer</span> and <span class="bQ">nearest</span> with <span class="bQ">to</span>, although it can be dropped in a more informal style.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>She moved nearer (to) the fire.</li>
<li>It's in the drawer nearest (to) the fridge.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Note that we always use <span class="bQ">to</span> with <span class="bQ">close</span> and <span class="bQ">next</span> when they are being used as prepositions:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>She sat close to the fire.</li>
<li>Her brother sat next to her.</li>
</ul>
<h4><em>'Nearby to'</em> is better avoided</h4>
<div class="m10">You might very occasionally see <span class="bQ">'nearby to'</span> + clause. Here is an example at Google Books:</div>
<ul class="bQ" style="list-style:none;">
<li>In those times it was relatively easy to find work nearby to where a person lived.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">And <em>Daily Writing Tips</em> found this example:</div>
<ul class="bQ" style="list-style:none;">
<li>Nearby to the pub is the “hidden” 13th century church of St John the Baptist.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But most native speakers prefer a simple <span class="bQ">near</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ" style="list-style:none;">
<li>In those times it was relatively easy to find work near where a person lived.</li>
<li>Near the pub is the “hidden” 13th century church of St John the Baptist.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="noprint"><div class="exDiv">
<h3>Answers</h3>
<div class="m10"><input class="clue" value="Ex 1" onclick="showPickNDrop(3)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Ex 2" onclick="showPickNDrop(1)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Ex 3" onclick="showPickNDrop(2)" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Show all" onclick="showAll()" type="button"><input class="clue" value="Clear all" onclick="clearAll()" type="button"></div></div>
<h3>Links</h3>
<h4>Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/near_1">near - adjective</a> usage notes <span class="bQ">near / close</span>, <span class="bQ">next / nearest</span></li>
<li><a href="http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/near_2">near - adverb</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/near_3">near - preposition</a> usage notes <span class="bQ">next / nearest</span></li>
<li><a href="http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/nearby_1">nearby - adjective</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/nearby_2">nearby - adverb</a></li>
</ul>
<h4><em>Nearby</em></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://sentence.yourdictionary.com/nearby">Your Dictionary</a> - examples being used in sentences</li>
<li><a href="http://bnc.bl.uk/saraWeb.php?qy=nearby">British National Corpus</a> - examples</li>
<li><a href="http://www.just-the-word.com/main.pl?word=nearby">Just the Word</a> - collocations</li>
<li><a href="http://fraze.it/n_search.jsp?q=nearby">Fraze it</a> - examples, definitions and more</li>
<li><a href="http://forbetterenglish.com/index.cgi?page=acd&article=an&language=English&str=nearby">For Better English</a> - examples and collocations, with grammatical labels</li>
</ul>
<h4>Other</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.englishpractice.com/grammar/nearest/">English Practice</a> - <span class="bQ">near, nearer, next</span></li>
<li><a href="http://www.dailywritingtips.com/preposition-near-doesnt-need-a-to/">Daily Writing Tips</a> - <span class="bQ">near</span> or <span class="bQ">near to</span></li>
<li><a href="http://www.learnersdictionary.com/qa/what-s-the-difference-between-near-and-nearby">Merriam-Webster Learner's Dictionary</a> - Ask the Editor - the difference between <span class="bQ">near</span> and <span class="bQ">nearby</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-61803375530523045632014-06-13T18:31:00.001+02:002014-06-13T18:42:10.347+02:00Random thoughts on 'Early Doors'<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">Seeing the World Cup has just started, it seems a good time to look at an expression whose popularity largely stems from its use by those who write and talk about football - <span class="bQ">'early doors'</span>. Here are some examples taken from the online version of football magazine <em>Four Four Two</em>:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">We got a good goal <span class="hi">early doors</span>, and I thought we were going to stop them scoring, we defended very well.</div>
<div class="m10">a side that seems to revel in giving away cheap goals <span class="hi">early doors</span></div>
<div class="m10">former Sevilla keeper, Javi Varas, was brought in <span class="hi">early doors</span> to give experience in goal.</div>
<div class="m10">but those odds went up and up when the team dispensed of Valladolid <span class="hi">early doors</span> in what was an eventual 4-2 victory.</div>
</div>
<div class="m10">At <em>The Oxford Dictionary of Idioms</em> they define <span class="bQ">'early doors'</span> as meaning <span class="bQ">'early on, especially in a game or contest'</span>. That many of those who don't follow football have been blissfully unaware of this expression (at least until recently) is exemplified in a remark in an article in the political weekly magazine Tribune, from 2002:</div>
<div class="cite4">He is also fond of the expression "early doors" although, as no one knows what that means, it is not clear if it is relevant.<p><em>Tribune, Vol 66 - 2002</em></p></div>
<div class="m10">So how did this expression originate? Taking my leads from an article by Michael Quinnion at <em>World Wide Words</em>, I decided to see what I could dig up, mainly at Google Books.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>In English football</h3>
<h4>Ron Atkinson</h4>
<div class="m10">The expression <span class="bQ">'Early doors'</span> - is especially associated with English football, and with commentator and pundit Ron Atkinson in particular - one Telegraph writer wondered <span class="bQ">"Does Big Ron ask his wife if she might get breakfast ready early doors?"</span>. Atkinson was first a player at Oxford United, then manager of several teams, including Manchester United, before becoming a football pundit on television. It was in this last role that he became famous for his odd turns-of-phrase, sometimes known as Big-Ronisms or Ronglish, perhaps the best known of which is <span class="bQ">'early doors'</span>. </div>
<div class="cite4">Ron Atkinson's quirky use of English, as in phrases like 'early doors', has made him a regular choice for providing expert summary during ITV televised coverage in the 1990s and 2000s.<p><em>Encyclopedia of British Football</em>, Richard William Cox, Dave Russell, Wray Vamplew - 2002</p></div>
<h4>Brian Clough</h4>
<div class="m10">A couple of sources, though, suggest its use in football started in 1979 when Brian Clough, at the time manager of Nottingham Forest, in an interview in the Observer, said, <span class="bQ">"Early doors, it was vital that they (the players) liked me"</span>. Writing at the <em>Oxford Dictionaries Blog</em>, Owen Goodyear suggests that this was a malapropism. I'm not so sure, as I believe that this was an expression Clough would have been familiar with from a non-footballing context, as we shall see a bit later.</div>
<div class="m10">It is apparently now popular with commentators, footballers and fans alike. It seems to me as if it probably started off as an in-joke among the footballing fraternity, and just stuck. </div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Football examples from the British media</h3>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">"They scored early doors which hurt us a lot," Whittingham said. "We knew they were going to start well and they did that" <p><em>BBC Sport</em></p></div>
<div class="m10">In the early part of my career the only things you'd hear a manager shout were "let him know you're there early doors", "win your tackles" and, slightly less violently, "if in doubt, kick it out".<p><em>The Guardian</em> - the 'Secret Footballer'</p></div>
<div class="m10">Arsenal and their fans will bottle it if we go ahead early doors, says Celtic defender Gary Caldwell.<p><em>The Mail</em></p></div>
<div class="m10">... we'll have to try to make certain that we baulk them, early doors, but it won't be easy.<p><em>The Telegraph</em></p></div>
<div class="m10">Rodgers was quick off the mark in January, snapping up Daniel Sturridge and Philippe Coutinho early doors.<p><em>The Express</em></p></div>
<div class="m10">Sir, Having a player sent off in football or rugby, especially “early doors”, makes it onesided and reduces the entertainment value of the event.<p><em>The Times</em> - letter from a reader</p></div>
<div class="m10"><p><em></em></p></div>
</div>
<h3>And a couple from rugby and other sports</h3>
<div class="m10">And it's spread beyond football, especially, perhaps, to rugby but to other sports too.</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">One black mark: he should have scored early doors, he must learn to get them down.<p><em>The Telegraph</em> - rugby</p></div>
<div class="m10">Life's a beach early doors as the fans take in some pre-match sun.<p><em>Sky Sports</em> - rugby</p></div>
<div class="m10">Let's get the snooker questions out of the way early doors. <p><em>The Guardian</em> - snooker</p></div>
<div class="m10">"Unfortunately early doors we got blown away."<p><em>The Telegraph</em> - cricket</p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Use beyond sport</h3>
<div class="m10">The Telegraph has even used it in the financial pages (I presume tongue-in-cheek) - <span class="bQ">"It's early doors for the Grand National bookmakers"</span> (the favourite had won the National).</div>
<div class="m10">I've gathered a few non-sporting examples from contemporary books near the end of this post. Meanwhile here are a few examples from the media:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">Mrs Hughes summed it up early doors: "We're all tired. But not as tired as we're going to be."<p><em>The Guardian</em> - talking about filming Downton Abbey</p></div>
<div class="m10">JAY-Z won't have to worry about getting his towel on the sunbed early doors in Shagaluf any more – he's buying an island in the Bahamas.<p><em>The Sun</em></p></div>
<div class="m10">It is still early doors for this noble enterprise, but if you're in south London, you could do a lot worse than lend it your support<p><em>The Telegraph</em> - talking about a new pub</p></div>
<div class="m10">He liked to have a chat with our barmaids so that's why he got in early, he was an early doors man<p><em>The Mail</em></p></div>
<div class="m10">Is it early doors for Standard Life chief?<p><em>The Financial Times</em> - this is really a play on words, as the writer is speculating whether the Standard Life boss will heading early for the 'exit door'.</p></div>
<div class="m10">I was stunned to see her up and about early doors after a very late finish.<p><em>The Sun</em></p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Aside - <em>early days</em></h3>
<div class="m10">There's a much more common idiom <span class="bQ">'it's early days'</span> usually meaning that it's too soon to make a decision or a judgement about something. <span class="bQ">Early doors</span> is sometimes also used with this meaning. Here are a couple of examples:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">It's still early doors for him, though, and I think we've treated him right<p><em>Four Four Two</em></p></div>
<div class="m10">'I do appreciate what people are saying about my prospects but it is early doors'<p><em>The Mail</em> (and elsewhere)</p></div>
<div class="m10">Early doors, obviously, but what a pleasure it is to report that the judging panel unanimously scented promise.<p><em>The Times</em> - about skating</p></div>
</div>
<div class="m10">But it seems to be used much more commonly to mean <span class="bQ">early on</span>, or simply <span class="bQ">early</span>.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Its origins in late nineteenth and early twentieth century theatre</h3>
<div class="m10">Its history goes back well before its use in football. Two book titles give us a clue to the phrase's origins: <em>The Early Doors: Origins of the Music Hall</em>, by Harold Scott, 1946, and <em>Early Doors: My Life and the Theatre</em>, by Philip Burton, 1969. Here's another clue to its origins in a relatively recent novel:</div>
<div class="cite4">"Be in good time," he added, as I turned to go; "early doors threepence extra." "What did you say about doors?" "Early doors threepence extra," he replied, making a trumpet of his hands. Puzzled though I still was, I dare not ask again;<p><em>John Penrose: A Romance of the Land's End</em>, John Coulson Tregarthen - 2004</p></div>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">'Early doors'</span> was in fact a practice where by paying a bit extra you could get into a theatre (or music hall) early, thereby avoiding the crush at the standard opening time, and in some cases get the best choice of seats. </div>
<div class="m10">At <em>World Wide Words</em>, Michael Quinion quotes an example from <em>The Liverpool Mercury</em>, dated 1877. The earliest example I can find at Google Books is from 1889:</div>
<div class="cite4">Private boxes from 10<em>s</em>. 6<em>d</em>. to <em>£</em>5. 5<em>s</em>.; balcony stalls (numbered and reserved), 3<em>s</em>. ; stage stalls (numbered and reserved). 3<em>s</em>. ; pit and promenade, 2<em>s</em>. ; amphitheatre, 1<em>s</em>. ; gallery, 6<em>d</em>. Children half-price to all parts except gallery on payment at the doors. Early doors 6<em>d</em>. extra. <p><em>The Era Almanack</em>, 1889 <a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=lysLAAAAIAAJ&q=%22early+doors%22&dq=%22early+doors%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xiCYU5TyCbKV7AbK84HwBQ&redir_esc=y">GB</a></p></div>
<div class="m10">A letter-writer to the Telegraph remembers his grandparents still using it like this in the 1930s. Here are a few more examples from the 1890s: </div>
<div class="cite4">The coachmen on their boxes, in front of the great portico, bury their ears in their fur tippets as their horses wince under the blast ; and beneath the piazza, where the " early doors " are already surrounded by a little crowd of early pittites, <p><em>All the Year Round: A Weekly Journal</em>, Charles Dickens - 1890</p></div>
<div class="cite4"> One of the first to enter the ' early doors ' of that ' professional matinee' was our old friend Mr. J. L. Toole, who, accompanied by his daughter Florence, had 'just popped in'<p><em>The Keeleys: on the stage and at home</em>, Walter Goodman - 1895</p></div>
<div class="cite4">It must be five o'clock at least ; Nancy was coming back at half -past five for her toilette, and they were to leave at six, because the theatre in question had no "early doors," and it was a case of first come first served.<p><em>Lesser Destinies</em>, Samuel Gordon, 1899</p></div>
<div class="m10">By 1908, the expression had reached Australia: this is from the New South Wales parliamentary register for that year:</div>
<div class="cite4">The swindle was worked in this way : people who wanted to get decent seats in a theatre waited outside in queue order, and had to pay an additional shilling for early doors.</div>
<div class="m10">Six years later, in the Australian parliamentary records, this appeared:</div>
<div class="cite4">We have been told that it was a packed meeting which was held in the Sydney Town Hall—that is to say, that the hall would not hold more people, that the early doors were rushed.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Use as a First World War battle cry</h3>
<div class="m10">As G.K.Chesterton, amongst others, has pointed out, <span class="bQ">'early doors'</span> was used as a British battle cry in the First World War. This is from a pamphlet, <em>The Retreat from Mons</em>, published in 1914:</div>
<div class="cite4">A party of the King's Own went into one battle shouting out, 'Early doors this way! Early doors, ninepence!'</div>
<div class="m10">And from various other sources at Google Books:</div>
<div class="cite4">Echoes of the music-halls of London occur in the letters of many London soldiers, as, for example, "Early doors this way," "Early doors, ninepence." <p><em>The Living Age - Volume 287</em>, Eliakim Littell, Robert S. Littell - 1915</p></div>
<div class="cite4">A party of the King's Own," writes Sapper Mugridge of the Royal Engineers, " went into their first action shouting ' Early doors this way ! Early doors, ninepence ! ' " " The Kaiser's crush " is the description given by a sergeant of the Coldstream Guards <p>Tommy Atkins at War as Told in His Own Letters, James Alexander Kilpatrick - 1914</p></div>
<div class="cite4">I cannot imagine any but a British regiment rushing into the hell of the machine-gun fire with the cry of “Early doors sixpence extra”; or with the men kicking a football before them through the zone of sputtering bullets. <p><em>The Fortnightly Review</em> - 1917</p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>One set of (early) doors shuts and another opens</h3>
<div class="m10">By the outbreak of the Second World War, this theatrical practice seems to have died out, and I can find no examples at Google Books of it being used as a battle cry in the Second World War. Via Michael Quinion's page on "Early Doors" at <em>World Wide Words</em> I found an article on the history of the theatre in <em>The Illustrated London News</em> of 1956, where it is said:</div>
<div class="cite4">The gallery survives, with some of the gallery queues. The pit is a legend forgotten. "Early Doors" is an archaism.<p><em>The Illustrated London News</em>, 1956, </p></div>
<div class="m10">Meanwhile, <em>'early doors'</em> seemed to be taking on a new meaning, especially in the Midlands of England. In a letter to the Telegraph, reader Andrew Robinson wrote:</div>
<div class="cite4">
It is a Midlands expression to ensure maximum drinking time by describing pub (door) opening time: "I'll meet you in the Red Lion, early doors." <p>Letter to the Telegraph, Andrew Robinson, - 2002</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Pub opening time</h3>
<div class="m10">Up until the late 1980s, by law English pubs had to close between 2.30pm and around 5.30pm. As I understand it, <span class="bQ">early doors</span> was used here to mean immediately after the pubs re-opened after the afternoon break.</div>
<div class="m10">The earliest example of this meaning I can find is from a prize-winning radio ballad broadcast in 1979, <em>A Lament for the Lost Pubs of Burslem</em>, by playwright Arthur Berry. This was reprinted in <em>The Listener</em> in the same year. Berry talks of big stove pots which had heated the taproom (the main room in the pub) in days gone by, but which had been replaced by <span class="bQ">'a pitiful but convenient heating arrangement'</span>: </div>
<div class="cite4">How terrible has been the loss of these stove pots — these magnificent dark stoves that were once the heart of every taproom — elegant black shapes that stood there with such dignity, such presence, like totems. To sit against one of these on a winter night and feel the rich heat and watch the clear amber beer was a benediction. Men would come early doors to get a seat on one of the wooden forms against it. And how the stove pipes were fitted at angles to get to the ceiling. To watch a publican's dog lying asleep in front of one of those stoves was to watch luxury.<p><em>A Lament for the Lost Pubs of Burslem</em>, Arthur Berry</p></div>
<div class="m10">Here are some more examples of this pub-opening use. The first one refers to the war-time bombing of Britain:</div>
<div class="cite4"> Sometimes the lights went out in the pub as electric cables were hit, but usually they came on again in about half an hour. ... Once they had found one (a pub) that suited them they made a habit of being in at the 'early doors'. <p><em>The Home front: an anthology of personal experience, 1938-1945</em>, Norman Longmate - 1981</p></div>
<div class="m10">And here's one about Newcastle:</div>
<div class="cite4">On a Friday night the entire population seems to be spending like mad in the pubs and clubs. Newcastle's nightlife ... As with restaurants, happy hour is a big deal in Newcastle - serial early-doors drinking is positively encouraged. <p><em>The Rough Guide to Britai</em>n, Robert Andrews - 1996</p></div>
<div class="m10">And here it seems to be being extended to a restaurant in northern England.</div>
<div class="cite4">A good-value, fixed-price menu operates at 'early doors' times (last orders are at 7.15pm).<p><em>Passport's Guide to Britain's Best Hotels</em>, Patricia Yates - 1996</p></div>
<div class="m10">In a study of an upmarket private housing estate in 'Cheshire's green belt', the writer describes a group of drinkers assembled around 6.15 in the evening in 'the Clubhouse': </div>
<div class="cite4">Anyone entering the bar at this time, known by the group as 'early doors', that the group does not consider appropriate company is ignored <p><em>Leisure, Lifestyle and the New Middle Class: A Case Study</em>, Derek Wynne - 2002</p></div>
<div class="m10">And here's a description of The Waters Green Tavern, Macclesfield, Cheshire:</div>
<div class="cite4">It attracts a wide range of clientele from campanologists to the local cycling group, as well as walkers returning from the hills at early doors. The Waters Green Tavern is open from 11.30am-3.00pm and from 5.30pm onwards each day except ...<p><em>Best Pub Walks in the Dark Peak</em>, Les Lumsdon, Martin Smith - 2004</p></div>
<div class="m10">Most of these examples seem to come from the Midlands and from the North of England. And finally, in <em>The Pub in Literature: England's Altered State</em>, published in 2000, Steven Earnshaw uses <span class="bQ">'Early doors'</span> as the title heading for Chapter 2, describing the early history of pubs.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>TV Series</h3>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">Early Doors</span> is the name of a low-key BBC sitcom set in 'a typical northern local pub' (BBC) called <em>The Grapes</em>, which first aired in 2003.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>'Early doors'</em> in various books at Google Books</h3>
<div class="m10">Around the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st, <span class="bQ">'early doors'</span> was being used to simply mean <span class="bQ">'early (on)'</span> in rather broader contexts, in both fiction and non-fiction:</div>
<div class="cite4">Libby Manning came here early doors. Meant to intercept. A phone impossible <p><em>Ambit</em>, Issue 105 - 1986</p></div>
<div class="cite4">A bump at my shoulder nearly spills my beer. Someone chatters to me in Jabberhut then mimes lighting a cigarette. ... Early doors so no one's really going for it on the floor yet. Each dancer is just bobbing meditatively, marking time till the pills ... <p><em>Manners</em>, Robert Newman - 1998 </p></div>
<div class="cite4">Embraced by the biggest rock band at the time, Guns N' Roses, who were themselves no strangers to substance abuse, Blind Melon hit paydirt early doors with their debut album of 1993.<p>The Beatles Uncovered, Dave Henderson - 2001 </p></div>
<div class="cite4">It's still early doors, so it's gaunny be a full house<p><em>Glue</em>, Irvine Welsh, 2001</p></div>
<div class="cite4">As I stated early doors in this book, the humour and joviality is what keeps us sane in the face of often-unpleasant occurrences to say the least <p><em>Gone to Blazes: Life As a Cumbrian Fireman</em>, David Stubbings - 2002</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Suzie noodded. Kissed him on the chin. 'Early doors?' 'Early doors it'll be, heart, yes.' <p><em>Angels Dining at the Ritz</em>, John Gardner - 2004</p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Rhyming slang?</h3>
<div class="m10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_drawers#mediaviewer/File:Arthurs_home_magazine_open_drawers_3105.png"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVEeCtPF3QnLnlmIH62OYvgfL2bUndqa7Mv8px51uMgWn7gtYgoNRX8QGu_nXSPIlu6hpV9wYw92mojLwXjlGvB2UkdX3VpnvcEvlQ1OQ4UXMZKLtaJbh7OQ_j2ccC4AEwP5Flsy1ZY89i/s320/drawers.png" height="200"/></a><div class="webAddr">Image in the public domain, from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_drawers#mediaviewer/File:Arthurs_home_magazine_open_drawers_3105.png">Wikipedia</a></div></div>
<div class="m10">In <em>A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English</em>, Eric Partridge suggests it was rhyming slang for women's drawers (the undergarment), dating from around 1870. This has been repeated in several other books on slang, but I haven't been able to find any examples of this use. In any case, rhyming slang is usually based on familiar names or expressions, so it was probably taken from the theatrical usage.
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Conclusion</h3>
<div class="m10">In his piece at <em>World Wide Words</em>, Michael Quinnion says <span class="bQ">"The pub origin ... is widely believed. ... It’s a neat idea, but it isn’t true."</span>. In terms of the original use of the expression, he is no doubt right, but if we are talking about where the football fraternity got it from, I think that the pub use is the much more likely explanation.</div>
<div class="m10">Apart from the fact that football and pubs often go together, there are a couple of things to support this hypothesis:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="normal">The use in pubs seems to be particularly associated with the Midlands. Brian Clough spent more than ten years as manager of two Midlands clubs, Derby County and Nottingham Forest. Ron Atkinson also spent about ten years managing clubs in the Midlands, West Bromwich Albion, Aston Villa, or just outside, such as Manchester United and Sheffield Wednesday.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">In this use, <span class="bQ">'Early Doors'</span> was often used specifically to mean <span class="bQ">'early (on)'</span>, as in <span class="bQ">"I'll meet you early doors."</span> There is no evidence that it was used in this way in its theatrical incarnation.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">This pub-related use was around at the same time as it first appeared in a football context. Both Arthur Berry's radio ballad and Brian Clough's Observer interview date from 1979. On the other hand the theatrical use had died out some time before, and the expression had already been called an archaism in 1956. Wouldn't Clough and Atkinson have been more likely to have been aware of a use that was current rather than one considered an archaism?</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Google site searches</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22early+doors%22+site%3Awww.telegraph.co.uk&gws_rd=ssl">The Telegraph</a> - best for discussions of the expression</li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22early+doors%22+site%3Awww.guardian.co.uk&gws_rd=ssl">The Guardian</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22early+doors%22+site%3Awww.independent.co.uk&gws_rd=ssl">The Independent</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22early+doors%22+site%3Awww.thetimes.co.uk&gws_rd=ssl">The Times</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22early+doors%22+site%3Awww.ft.com&gws_rd=ssl">The Financial Times</a> - mainly non-sporting examples</li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22early+doors%22+site%3Awww.dailymail.co.uk&gws_rd=ssl">The Mail</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22early+doors%22+site%3Awww.express.co.uk&gws_rd=ssl">The Express</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22early+doors%22+site%3Awww.thesun.co.uk&gws_rd=ssl">The Sun</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22early+doors%22+site%3Awww.bbc.co.uk/sport&gws_rd=ssl">BBC Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22early+doors%22+site%3Awww.skysports.com&gws_rd=ssl">Sky Sports</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22early+doors%22+site%3Awww.fourfourtwo.com&gws_rd=ssl">Four Four Two (Football magazine)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Links</h3>
<h4>Origins and meaning</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-ear1.htm">World Wide Words</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/language/uptodate/2010/11/101116_kyeutd_early_doors_page.shtml">BBC Learning English</a> - Keep your English Up to Date, John Ayto</li>
<li><a href="http://www.pjonline.com/blog_entry/prospector_early_doors_england">PJ Online (Pharmaceutical Journal)</a></li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=UgrUjXLI0TgC&pg=PT427&dq=%22early+doors%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=AJuYU6CJBfPn7AbL7YDwBQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22early%20doors%22&f=false">The Oxford Dictionary of Idioms, edited by Judith Siefring</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Ron Atkinson</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1460067/The-Ronism...-from-early-doors-to-sick-as-a-parrot.html">The Ronism ... from early doors to sick as a parrot</a> - The Telegraph</li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=JKbb02bg6zYC&pg=PA253&dq=%22early+doors%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YJ6YU8X_HJGV7AbYx4GYBg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22early%20doors%22&f=false">Encyclopedia of British Football</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Atkinson">Wikipedia</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Brian Clough</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2012/05/the-language-of-the-beautiful-game/">Oxford Dictionaries Blog</a></li>
<li><a href="">Who Invented the Stepover?:and other crucial football conundrums</a>, by Paul Simpson, Uli Hesse</li>
<li><a href="http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2012/05/the-language-of-the-beautiful-game/">Oxford Dictionaries Blog</a> - The Language of the Beautiful Game</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Clough">Wikipedia</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Theatre</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/letters/3585695/Early-doors.html">Letter to the Telegraph</a></li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=KT-cAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA84&dq=%22early+doors%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=whyYU_XMLam47Aa5hIGIBg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22early%20doors%22&f=false">Oxford Dictionary of Slang</a>, edited by John Ayto, John Simpson</li>
</ul>
<h4>The pub hypothesis</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/letters/3585696/Drinking-time.html">Letter to the Telegraph</a></li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=781BAQAAIAAJ&q=%22How+terrible+has+been+the+loss+of+these+stove+pots+%E2%80%94+these+magnificent+dark+stoves+that+were+once+the+heart+of+every+taproom+%E2%80%94+elegant+black+shapes+that+stood+there+with+such+dignity,+such+presence,+like+totems.+To+sit+against+one+of+these+on+a+winter+night+and+feel+the+rich+heat+and+watch+the+clear+amber+beer+was+a+benediction.+Men+would+come+early+doors+to+get+a+seat+on+one+of+the+wooden+forms+against+it.+And+how+the+stove+pipes+were+fitted+at+angles+to+get+to+the+ceiling.+To+watch+a+publican%27s+dog+lying+asleep+in+front+of+one+of+those+stoves+was+to+watch+luxury.%22&dq=%22How+terrible+has+been+the+loss+of+these+stove+pots+%E2%80%94+these+magnificent+dark+stoves+that+were+once+the+heart+of+every+taproom+%E2%80%94+elegant+black+shapes+that+stood+there+with+such+dignity,+such+presence,+like+totems.+To+sit+against+one+of+these+on+a+winter+night+and+feel+the+rich+heat+and+watch+the+clear+amber+beer+was+a+benediction.+Men+would+come+early+doors+to+get+a+seat+on+one+of+the+wooden+forms+against+it.+And+how+the+stove+pipes+were+fitted+at+angles+to+get+to+the+ceiling.+To+watch+a+publican%27s+dog+lying+asleep+in+front+of+one+of+those+stoves+was+to+watch+luxury.%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ze2aU9usENKV7Abs9IGoAQ&redir_esc=y">Berry's Lament at the Listener</a> (extract - Google Books)</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Berry_%28playwright%29">Arthur Berry - Wikipedia</a></li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=tt6KAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130&dq=%22early+doors%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=AJuYU6CJBfPn7AbL7YDwBQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22early%20doors%22&f=false">Leisure, Lifestyle and the New Middle Class: A Case Study
</a> - Derek Wynne (Google Books)</li>
</ul>
<h4>Rhyming slang</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=VPBMA1ciCNgC&pg=PA358&dq=%22early+doors%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OJiYU-K6GZT34QSEvoCQBQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22early%20doors%22&f=false">A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English</a> Eric Partridge (Google Books)</li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=JRuNMHNcu5cC&pg=PA1628&dq=%22early+doors%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YJ6YU8X_HJGV7AbYx4GYBg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22early%20doors%22&f=false">The Routledge Dictionary of Historical Slang, Eric Partridge</a></li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-23075772684898266762014-06-08T13:37:00.002+02:002014-06-08T13:44:45.900+02:00Random thoughts on the expression go missing<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<ul class="bQ" style="list-style:none;">
<li>Have you seen the bread knife? It seems to have gone missing.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">When we say that something or somebody went or has gone missing, we mean that it or that person (has) disappeared: the thing or person are not where we expect to find them. It is sometimes considered informal, but is often used in the British media to refer to people who have disappeared, especially in time of war and natural disasters etc. </div>
<div class="m10">In the past this use was mainly British, but it seems to be being increasingly used in the American media, and not all Americans are happy about it. In fact so many wrote and complained to GrammarGirl about it, that she nominated it her <em>Peeve of the Year</em> for 2007.</div>
<div class="m10">Even the BBC are in two minds about it, apparently. Writing in the New York Times in 2004, the late William Safire quoted from their style guide:</div>
<div class="cite4"><em>Go missing</em> is inelegant and unpopular with many people, but its use is widespread. There are no easy synonyms. <em>Disappear</em> and <em>vanish</em> do not convince, and they suggest dematerialization, which is rare.</div>
<div class="m10">But there doesn't seem to be anything about it in the Guardian or The Economist style guides, nor in the standard usage books.</div>
<div class="m10">I decided to have a bit of a closer look.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>Go missing, gone missing</em> and <em>went missing</em> at Ngram</h3>
<div class="m10">These two graphs show the rise in the use of <span class="bQ">go missing</span> in books. Its use in American books started later than in British ones, and the number of instances is lower, but they seem to be catching up a bit.</div>
<h4>British books </h4>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=went+missing%2Cgone+missing%2Cgo+missing&year_start=1900&year_end=2008&corpus=18&smoothing=0&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cwent%20missing%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cgone%20missing%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cgo%20missing%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe><center><a href="https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=went+missing%2Cgone+missing%2Cgo+missing&year_start=1900&year_end=2008&corpus=18&smoothing=0&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cwent%20missing%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cgone%20missing%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cgo%20missing%3B%2Cc0">Ngram</a></center></div>
<h4>American books </h4>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=went+missing%2Cgone+missing%2Cgo+missing&year_start=1900&year_end=2008&corpus=17&smoothing=0&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cwent%20missing%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cgone%20missing%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cgo%20missing%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe><center><a href="https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=went+missing%2Cgone+missing%2Cgo+missing&year_start=1900&year_end=2008&corpus=17&smoothing=0&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cwent%20missing%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cgone%20missing%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cgo%20missing%3B%2Cc0">Ngram</a></center></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>My parrot has gone missing</em> and other stories</h3>
<div class="m10">Among the <span class="bQ">go missing</span> stories in the media is one where the BBC quote the Leicestershire police as listing <span class="bQ">'My parrot has gone missing'</span> as one example of "inappropriate" phone calls made to the 999 emergency number. Meanwhile the Sun has a headline <span class="bQ">'Winona Ryder's borrowed £82k gems go missing'</span>.
</div>
<div class="m10">Unfortunately most instances of <span class="bQ">go missing</span> in the British media are of rather a sadder nature. Here are some site searches for <span class="bQ">go missing</span> stories:</div>
<table class="grammarTable" style="margin:10px auto;">
<tr><td>The BBC</td><td><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Go%20missing%20is%20inelegant%20and%20unpopular%20with%20many%20people%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22has+gone+missing%22+site:www.bbc.co.uk">gone missing</a></td><td><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Go%20missing%20is%20inelegant%20and%20unpopular%20with%20many%20people%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22went+missing%22+site:www.bbc.co.uk">went missing</a><td><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Go%20missing%20is%20inelegant%20and%20unpopular%20with%20many%20people%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22go+missing%22+site:www.bbc.co.uk">go missing</a></td></td></tr>
<tr><td>The Guardian</td><td><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Go%20missing%20is%20inelegant%20and%20unpopular%20with%20many%20people%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22gone+missing%22+site:www.guardian.co.uk">gone missing</a></td><td><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Go%20missing%20is%20inelegant%20and%20unpopular%20with%20many%20people%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22went+missing%22+site:www.guardian.co.uk">went missing</a></td><td><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Go%20missing%20is%20inelegant%20and%20unpopular%20with%20many%20people%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22go+missing%22+site:www.guardian.co.uk">go missing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td>The Daily Mail</td><td><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Go%20missing%20is%20inelegant%20and%20unpopular%20with%20many%20people%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22gone+missing%22+site:www.dailymail.co.uk">gone missing</a></td><td><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Go%20missing%20is%20inelegant%20and%20unpopular%20with%20many%20people%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22went+missing%22+site:www.dailymail.co.uk">went missing</a></td><td><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Go%20missing%20is%20inelegant%20and%20unpopular%20with%20many%20people%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22go+missing%22+site:www.dailymail.co.uk">go missing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td>The Sun</td><td><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Go%20missing%20is%20inelegant%20and%20unpopular%20with%20many%20people%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22gone+missing%22+site:www.thesun.co.uk">gone missing</a></td><td><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Go%20missing%20is%20inelegant%20and%20unpopular%20with%20many%20people%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22went+missing%22+site:www.thesun.co.uk">went missing</a></td><td><a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Go%20missing%20is%20inelegant%20and%20unpopular%20with%20many%20people%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22go+missing%22+site:www.thesun.co.uk">go missing</a></td></tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Why the dislike?</h3>
<div class="m10">There are a range of expressions to do with sport and physical activities where we use <span class="bQ">go</span> plus a gerund (<span class="bQ">-ing</span> form) - <span class="bQ">go cycling, go fishing, go shopping</span> etc., and I wonder if some of the opprobrium comes from the way <span class="bQ">go missing</span> looks similar to these, but obviously doesn't express any deliberate action on the part of the subject, whereas these others do.</div>
<div class="m10">But with all these expressions we could insert <span class="bQ">'to do some'</span> - <span class="bQ">go to do some cycling, go to do some fishing, go to do some shopping</span>, where the noun quality of the gerund becomes clear. But we can't do that with <span class="bQ">go missing</span> - <span class="bQ">'go to do some missing'</span> simply doesn't work. This tells us that <span class="bQ">missing</span> isn't functioning as a gerund here, but rather as a participle, and so we have to look for some other grammatical explanation.</div>
<div class="m10">Grammarphobia quotes the OED as classing this with expressions like <span class="bQ">go native, go public</span> and <span class="bQ">go ape</span>, where go means 'to pass into a certain condition'. And although <span class="bQ">go native</span> and <span class="bQ">go public</span> still suggest a deliberate action, these expressions give us a clue - for here <span class="bQ">native, public</span> and <span class="bQ">ape</span> are nouns being used as adjectives. </div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>One justification - it's useful and it's an idiom</h3>
<div class="m10">In his New York Times article, Safire asks the question of why <span class="bQ">go missing</span> has lasted so long and has, in his words, <span class="bQ">'now blossomed'</span>. His answer:</div>
<div class="cite4">It does a semantic job that needs doing, that's why. No other term quite encapsulates 'to become lost inexplicably and unexpectedly,' which connotes suspicion of trouble. From the most serious loss (a person kidnapped, or a soldier unaccounted for or absent without leave) to an irritating minor loss (an object is mislaid), to go missing -- always in its past tense, went , or past participle, gone -- conveys a worried, nonspecific meaning that no other word or phrase quite does.</div>
<div class="m10">He should really have written <span class="bQ">usually in the past tense or past participle</span>; examples with base form <span class="bQ">go</span> can be found. At the British National Corpus there are 120 instances of <span class="bQ">went missing</span>, 85 of <span class="bQ">gone missing</span> and 20 of <span class="bQ">go missing</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">Safire puts it down to being an idiom, and says that as such <span class="bQ">'it is incorrect to correct it ... "idioms is idioms". Relax and enjoy them.'</span></div>
<div class="m10">But do we need to leave it at that? Can we try and explain the grammar behind this expression? I think we can.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>A grammatical explanation, Part 1 - <em>missing</em> as an adjective</h3>
<div class="m10">The present participle <span class="bQ">missing</span> can be used as an adjective, both attributively (before a noun) and predicatively (after a linking verb, typically <span class="bQ">be</span>): </div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Did you ever find that missing piece of the jigsaw puzzle?</li>
<li>The missing child was found safe and sound.</li>
<li>My gloves have been missing for ages.</li>
<li>He was reported (to be) missing last year.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">And of course, the media and the authorities often talk of <span class="bQ">'missing persons'</span>. In fact, dictionaries generally list <span class="bQ">go missing</span> in their entries for <span class="bQ">missing</span> as an adjective, so we can confirm that <span class="bQ">missing</span> is being used as an adjective here. Those people who dislike <span class="bQ">go missing</span> seem to have no problem with <span class="bQ">missing</span> as an adjective in <span class="bQ">missing persons</span> or <span class="bQ">is missing</span>, but presumably question how can somebody or something <span class="bQ"><strong>go</strong> missing</span>.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>A grammatical explanation, Part 2 - <em>go</em> as a linking (copular) verb</h3>
<div class="m10">As has already been hinted at, the verb <span class="bQ">go</span> is sometimes used as a linking or copular verb, functioning grammatically like <span class="bQ">be</span>, and followed by a predicative adjective. Here <span class="bQ">go</span> has more of the meaning of <span class="bQ">become</span>, another linking verb, where it describes a change of state or condition. This change is often outside the control of the grammatical subject. Notice how it compares with <span class="bQ">be</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>She is crazy about him.<br />
The dog seems to have gone crazy.</li>
<li>It's very dark in here.<br />
It suddenly went very dark.</li>
<li>He is bald/blind/mad/bankrupt etc<br />
He has gone bald/blind/mad/bankrupt etc</li>
<li>His hair is grey.<br />
His hair has gone grey.</li>
<li>This milk is sour.<br />
This milk has gone sour.</li>
<li>The children are really excited.<br />
The children went wild with excitement.</li>
<li>This is all wrong.<br />
Everything went wrong.</li>
<li>She was silent for a minute or so.<br />
Suddenly the room went silent.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Exactly the same thing is happening with <span class="bQ">go missing</span>. Again notice how the use of <span class="bQ">go</span> compares with that of <span class="bQ">be</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>A part is missing / There's a part missing.<br />
A part has gone missing.</li>
<li>It's been missing for two weeks or so.<br />
It went missing two weeks ago or so.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But admittedly, <span class="bQ">missing</span> appears to be the only adjective ending in <span class="bQ">-ing</span> that is used with <span class="bQ">go</span> in this way. There's a more detailed and technical grammatical explanation at <em>Language Log</em> link below).</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>How old is it?</h3>
<div class="m10">According to the OED (via Grammarphobia) it was originally used for lost aircraft, and was first recorded in a book published in Australia in 1944. On the other hand, Safire quotes an example from The Times (London) from 1877. But with the help of Google Books (GB), we can take it back even further than that. This, for example, is from a poem published in 1873:</div>
<div class="cite4">
Puss has got the thimble,<br />
Kitten has the reel.<br />
Needles, pins, go missing — <br />
No one heeds them now — <br />
Mammy's busy kissing <br />
Trotty's heated brow;
<p>Trotty, Harriet E Hunter, from Living Voices, compiled by E. Spooner, London 1873 <a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=CnMCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA136&dq=%22go+missing%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wx-UU7KSI-Lo7Aby-oGIDw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22go%20missing%22&f=false">GB</a></p>
</div>
<div class="m10">The oldest example I've been able to find is from a letter written in 1834, verified in several places:</div>
<div class="cite4">Asks Laing if he can transcribe a Ballantyne Club miscellany for him and mentions that a copy of the Trial of Clerk and Macdonald has gone missing<p>
Letter, Edinburgh 1834 <a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22a%20copy%20of%20the%20Trial%20of%20Clerk%20and%20Macdonald%20has%20gone%20missing%22&gws_rd=ssl">Google</a></p></div>
<div class="m10">Here are some more early examples:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>That was the letter that went missing ?<span class="nml"><br />
- Victoria Parliamentary Papers (Australia) 1859 </span><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=%22That+was+the+letter+that+went+missing+%3F%22">GB</a></li>
<li>separate blocks, and are very apt to go amissing or get destroyed<br />
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 1875</li>
<li>after some conversation, the marshal requested the stranger to tell the true reason for his refusing to be searched when the snuff-box went missing<span class="nml"><br />
- Short stories for School and Home Reading 1876 <a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22a%20copy%20of%20the%20Trial%20of%20Clerk%20and%20Macdonald%20has%20gone%20missing%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22and+after+some+conversation%2C+the+marshal+requested+the+stranger+to+tell+the+true+reason+for+his+refusing+to+be+searched+when+the+snuff-box+went+missing%22">GB</a></span></li>
<li>When may a man's friends naturally suppose that he has gone missing? When he has gone a-courting<br />
<span class="nml">Harper's Weekly, 1878 <a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22When%20may%20a%20man%27s%20friends%20naturally%20suppose%20that%20he%20has%20gone%20missing%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22naturally+suppose+that+he+has+gone+missing%22&tbm=bks">Google</a>
</span></li>
<li>Not an accident occurred under his care, not a piece of baggage went missing <span class="nml"><br />
- Crusading with Knights Templar, Pennsylvania 1878 <a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22a%20copy%20of%20the%20Trial%20of%20Clerk%20and%20Macdonald%20has%20gone%20missing%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22Not+an+accident+occurred+under+his+care%2C+not+a+piece+of+baggage+went+missing%2C+not+a+train+was+lost%22">GB</a></span></li>
<li>But I know that if they went missing I should feel pretty happy still<span class="nml"><br />
- The Granta (and elsewhere) 1890</span> <a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22a%20copy%20of%20the%20Trial%20of%20Clerk%20and%20Macdonald%20has%20gone%20missing%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22But+I+know+that+if+they+went+missing+I+should+feel+pretty+happy+still%22">GB</a></li>
<li>That's an awful bit of country. More than one man has gone missing there and never been heard of again<br />
<span class="nml">In the whirl of the rising - Bertrand Mitford, London 1904 <a href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22When%20may%20a%20man%27s%20friends%20naturally%20suppose%20that%20he%20has%20gone%20missing%22&gws_rd=ssl#hl=en&q=%22That%27s+an+awful+bit+of+country.+More+than+one+man+has+gone+missing+there+and+never+been+heard+of+again%22&tbm=bks">GB</a></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">There are a few from the time of <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=%22went+missing%22&hl=en&biw=1018&bih=616&source=lnt&tbs=cdr%3A1%2Ccd_min%3A1%2F1%2F1914%2Ccd_max%3A12%2F31%2F1919&tbm=bks">the First World War</a> and also from <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=%22went+missing%22&hl=en&biw=1018&bih=616&source=lnt&tbs=cdr%3A1%2Ccd_min%3A1%2F1%2F1939%2Ccd_max%3A12%2F31%2F1945&tbm=bks">the Second World War</a> </div>
</div>
<h3>Links</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://grammar.quickanddirtytips.com/went-missing.aspx">GrammarGirl</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.grammarphobia.com/blog/2006/08/gone-missing-or-went-missing.html">Grammarphobia</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/27/magazine/27ONLANGUAGE.html">The New York Times</a> - William Safire's <em>On Language</em> column.</li>
<li><a href="http://thefreedictionary.com/dict.asp?Word=missing">The Free Dictionary</a> - <em>missing</em></li>
<li><a href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/go+missing?r=66">Dictionary.com</a> - <em>go missing</em></li>
</ul>
<h4>Linguistics blogs</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://separatedbyacommonlanguage.blogspot.com/2009/12/words-of-year-2009-staycation-and-go.html">Separated by a Common Language</a> - Lynne Guist</li>
<li><a href="http://britishisms.wordpress.com/2011/02/20/go-missing/">Not One Off Britishisms</a> - Ben Yagoda</li>
<li><a href="http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/001142.html">Language Log</a> - Mark Liberman</li>
</ul>
</body>
</html>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-26944012777191759952014-06-01T12:54:00.003+02:002014-06-01T12:54:45.848+02:00Spelling and pronunciation - making sense of augh and ough<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">A well-known poem on the difficulties of English pronunciation starts:</div>
<div class="cite4" style="width:400px;margin:10px auto;">I take it you already know<br />
Of tough and bough and cough and dough.<br />
Others may stumble, but not you,<br />
On hiccough, thorough, though, and through</div>
<div class="m10">And we might say that this applies just as much to spelling. Words with <span class="bQ">ough</span> and <span class="bQ">augh</span> are often cited as examples of our 'crazy' spelling system, and it's true that <span class="bQ">ough</span> can have as many as seven or eight different sounds. But there aren't that many of these words, and they're quite easy to master.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">Let's start with the easy one - <span class="bQ">augh</span>:</div>
<h3><em>augh</em></h3>
<div class="m10">The letter group <span class="bQ">augh</span> has two basic sounds:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/ɑ:f/</span> (<span class="normal">st<span class="ul">aff</span>)</span><br />
laugh, laughable, laughter <span class="normal">etc</span><br />
draught, draughty, draughtsman <span class="normal">etc</span></li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/ɔ:/</span><span class="normal"> (<span class="normal">h<span class="ul">or</span>se)</span> - everything else</span><br />
caught, taught<br />
daughter, naughty <span class="normal">etc</span><br />
haugh (<span class="ipa">/ɔ:x/</span> <span class="normal">in Scotland) - quite rare</span>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>ough</em></h3>
<div class="m10">The letter group <span class="bQ">ough</span> can come:</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">1.</span> in the middle of a word or syllable, usually followed by <span class="bQ">t</span>, where there are two sounds:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/ɔ:/</span> <span class="normal">(h<span class="ul">or</span>se)</span><br />
ought, bought, thought<br />
brougham</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/aʊ/</span> <span class="normal">(<span class="ul">ow</span>l)</span><br />
doughty, drought</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">2.</span> at the end of the word or syllable, when there are six main sounds:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/əʊ/</span> <span class="normal">(ph<span class="ul">o</span>ne)</span><br />
although, dough, though<br />
furlough</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/aʊ/</span> <span class="normal">(<span class="ul">ow</span>l)</span><br />
bough, plough<br />
slough (1)</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/ʌf/</span> <span class="normal">(st<span class="ul">uff)</span></span><br />
enough, rough, tough<br />
chough, clough, slough (2)</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/ɒf/</span> <span class="normal">(s<span class="ul">of</span>t)</span><br />
cough, trough</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/ə/</span> <span class="normal">(butt<span class="ul">er</span>)</span><br />
borough, thorough</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/u:/</span> <span class="normal">(b<span class="ul">oo</span>t)</span><br />
through, breakthrough</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">There are three words which have their own sound</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>hiccoughs <span class="ipa">/hɪkʌp/</span> <span class="normal">(more usually <span class="bQ">hiccups</span>)</span></li>
<li>lough <span class="ipa">/lɒx</span> <span class="normal">(like <span class="bQ">loch </span>in Scottish English)</span></li>
<li>sough <span class="normal"> -very rare - either <span class="ipa">/saʊ/</span> or <span class="ipa">/sʌf/</span></span></li>
</ul>
<h4>Breaking it down into manageable bits</h4>
<div class="m10">That might sound like a lot of different possibilities, but we can break it down into small groups:</div>
<h4>Six verbs</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">one modal</span> <span class="ipa">/ɔ:/</span><br />ought</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">five irregular 2nd and 3rd forms</span> <span class="ipa">/ɔ:/</span><br />
buy - bought<br />
bring - brought<br />
fight - fought<br />
seek - sought<br />
think - thought</li>
</ul>
<h4>Other high frequency words</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">Very high frequency</span><br />
<span class="ipa">/əʊ/</span> <span class="normal">(ph<span class="ul">o</span>ne)</span> - although, though<br />
<span class="ipa">/u:/</span> <span class="normal">(b<span class="ul">oo</span>t)</span> - through<br />
<span class="ipa">/ʌf/</span> <span class="normal">(st<span class="ul">uff)</span></span> - enough</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="normal">High frequency</span><br />
<span class="ipa">/ɒf/</span> <span class="normal">(s<span class="ul">of</span>t)</span> - cough<br />
<span class="ipa">/ʌf/</span> <span class="normal">(st<span class="ul">uff)</span></span> - rough, tough<br />
<span class="ipa">/ə/</span> <span class="normal">(butt<span class="ul">er</span>)</span> - thoroughly, thorough, borough</li>
</ul>
<h4>Others worth knowing</h4>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/əʊ/</span> <span class="normal">(ph<span class="ul">o</span>ne)</span><br />dough, doughnut</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/aʊ/</span> <span class="normal">(<span class="ul">ow</span>l)</span><br />
bough, plough, drought</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/ɔ:/</span> <span class="normal">(h<span class="ul">or</span>se)</span><br />
nought, overwrought</li>
<li class="m10"><span class="ipa">/ɒf/</span> <span class="normal">(s<span class="ul">of</span>t)</span><br />
trough</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The whole poem</h3>
<div class="m10">The origins of this poem are unknown, but it has been attributed to T.S.Watt, a writer at The Manchester Guardian, and Goerge Bernard Shaw, among others.</div>
<div class="cite4" style="width:400px;margin:10px auto;">
<div class="m10">I take it you already know<br />
Of tough and bough and cough and dough?<br />
Others may stumble, but not you,<br />
On hiccough, thorough, lough and through?</div>
<div class="m10">Well done! And now you wish, perhaps,<br />
To learn of less familiar traps?<br />
Beware of heard, a dreadful word<br />
That looks like beard and sounds like bird,<br />
And dead: it’s said like bed, not bead -<br />
For goodness sake don’t call it deed!</div>
<div class="m10">Watch out for meat and great and threat<br />
(They rhyme with suite and straight and debt).<br />
A moth is not a moth in mother,<br />
Nor both in bother, broth in brother,<br />
And here is not a match for there<br />
Nor dear and fear for bear and pear,</div>
<div class="m10">And then there’s dose and rose and lose -<br />
Just look them up – and goose and choose,<br />
And cork and work and card and ward,<br />
And font and front and word and sword,<br />
And do and go and thwart and cart -<br />
Come, come, I’ve hardly made a start!</div>
A dreadful language? Man alive!<br />
I’d mastered it when I was five!</div>
<div class="m10">You can find a pronunciation exercise based on this poem using IPA symbols, together qith other exercises, at my IPA games post, linked to below.</div>
</div>
<h3>Related posts</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2012/09/pronunciation-game-using-ipa-symbols.html">Pronunciation games using IPA symbols</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2014/04/exploring-spelling-and-pronunciation.html">Exploring spelling and pronunciation, Part 1</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/p/sounds-ipa.html">Sounds - IPA</a></li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-63384206866083427252014-05-25T14:07:00.000+02:002014-07-15T12:26:11.235+02:00The team are - Collective nouns in British English<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>'<em>Our team are playing really well today</em>'</h3>
<div class="m10">That sentence is absolutely standard in British English, but unusual, 'ungrammatical' even, to American ears. The word <span class="bQ">team</span> denotes a group of people, and is usually referred to as a collective noun. The standard position amongst grammarians and usage guide writers is that you can use either a singular or plural verb with a collective noun.</div>
<div class="m10">There is a difference, however, between American and British usage. While Americans will practically always use a singular verb, British speakers will often use a plural verb, something some people find hard to accept.</div>
<div class="m10">During the course of a (let's say lively) discussion on this topic on a language forum, I collected quite a lot of quotes from, and links to, various grammar books, style guides and commentators on English, so I thought it might be useful to gather them all here.</div>
<div class="m10">In no sense am I trying to persuade people to use plural verbs with collective nouns: that is your choice. My aim here is just to try and convince people that this usage has a long history and is entirely legitimate.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The basic idea</h3>
<div class="m10">Here is how two highly respected websites for teachers and students of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) introduce the subject</div>
<div class="cite4">Collective nouns like <span class="bQ">jury, team, family, government</span> etc., can take both singular and plural verbs in British English. In American English they normally take a singular verb. <p>The British Council - Learning English</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Verb agreement with collective nouns - In British English collective nouns, (i.e. nouns referring to particular groups of people or things), (e.g. <span class="bQ">staff , government, class, team</span>) can be followed by a singular or plural verb depending on whether the group is thought of as one idea, or as many individuals <p>OneStopEnglish</p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Some examples from the British media.</h3>
<h4>Sports teams</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><strong>Liverpool</strong> are the underdogs in the title race <span class="normal">- Daily Mail (football)</span></li>
<li><strong>Yorkshire</strong> are well on top in this match, but Durham have shown grit and determination <span class="normal">- BBC (cricket)</span></li>
<li><strong>England</strong> were by far the better side today<span class="normal"> - The Telegraph (rugby)</span></li>
<li>Since the Boat Race began in 1829, <strong>Oxford</strong> have won 77 to Cambridge's 81<span class="normal"><br />
- Time Out</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>Bands</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>But <strong>the Who</strong> were already stars in Britain, having established their sound and their personae<span class="normal"> - Rolling Stone Magazine</span></li>
<li>While <strong>Jefferson Airplane</strong> were going off into the wilder extremes ... <span class="normal">- New Musical Express</span></li>
<li>It's not the first time that <strong>Led Zeppelin</strong> have been taken to court over their music.<span class="normal"> - Daily Mail</span></li>
<li>After a decade gigging the Scottish indie scene, <strong>Snow Patrol</strong> are back in the mainstream with arena tour<span class="normal"> - Daily Mirror</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>The government, political parties etc</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>The amount that <strong>the British government</strong> are paying to keep Windows XP alive is £5.584m<span class="normal"> - ampp3d (The Mirror)</span></li>
<li><strong>Ukip</strong> are the pro-Europeans' most dangerous weapon<br />
<span class="normal"> - The Telegraph (UKIP = United Kingdom Independence Party)</span></li>
<li>Number 10 sources are arguing that '<strong>Labour</strong> are actually going backwards'.<br />
<span class="normal"> - The Spectator (The Labour Party)</span></li>
<li>early indications suggested <strong>the SNP</strong> are on course to pick up a third seat.<br />
<span class="normal"> - Scottish Daily Record (SNP = The Scottish National Party)</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>Companies</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><strong>Pfizer</strong> are serious and they've got a lot of money to spend. They'll need first-class people doing first-class research<span class="normal"> - GlaxoSmithKline boss Sir Richard Sykes</span></li>
<li><strong>Apple</strong> have announced the latest iPad weighs just one pound<span class="normal"> - The Mirror</span></li>
<li><strong>Mercedes</strong> have won every race in Formula 1 this season<span class="normal"> - BBC Sport</span></li>
<li>Each coin is worth 1p and to celebrate the launch <strong>Amazon</strong> have given away 400 coins<span class="normal"> - The Independent</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>Banks</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><strong>RBS</strong> have been awarded 'Best Mortgage Lender Scotland' in the 2013/14 Your Mortgage Awards.<span class="normal"> - Royal Bank of Scotland</span></li>
<li><strong>The Bank of England</strong> have kept interest rates on hold at 0.5%.<span class="normal"> - ITV</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Non media sources</h3>
<div class="m10">To be honest, while the use of plural verbs for sports teams, bands and political parties is quite standard in the media, the use of plurals with things like companies is less common. This is probably seen as quite informal, and is found much more often on blogs, comments to websites and the social media than in the conventional media. Interestingly, it is quite often used by the companies themselves.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><strong>Bentley</strong> are part of the VW family<span class="normal"> - Bentley Motors</span></li>
<li>given that <strong>Skoda</strong> are trying to appeal to young drivers there are several bright tones to choose from<span class="normal"> - The AA (Automobile Association)</span></li>
<li><strong>Lloyds Bank</strong> are affiliate members of the British Franchise Association<span class="normal"> - LLoyds</span></li>
<li>As <strong>Samsung</strong> have announced April 11th for World Wide release will it be available in the UK from this date<span class="normal"> - comment on Vodaphone Blog</span></li>
<li><strong>Miss Selfridge</strong> are offering four exclusive personal shopper sessions at our Vogue Fashion's Night Out event.<span class="normal"> - Facebook</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The description of bands in Wikipedia</h3>
<div class="m10">Wikipedia articles about bands typically start like this: <span class="bQ">'The Beatles were an English rock band that formed in Liverpool, in 1960.'</span> So what happens when the name is singular, as in The Who or Jefferson Airplane. They generally seem to follow the British / American divide we've already talked about, with <span class="bQ">are</span> for British bands and <span class="bQ">is</span> for American bands.</div>
<h4>British bands</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><strong>The Who are</strong> an English rock band formed in 1964</li>
<li><strong>Fairport Convention are</strong> an English folk rock and electric folk band.</li>
<li><strong>Oasis were</strong> an English rock band formed in Manchester in 1991</li>
</ul>
<h4>American bands</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><strong>Jefferson Airplane was</strong> an American rock band formed in San Francisco</li>
<li><strong>Lynyrd Skynyrd is</strong> an American rock band best known for popularizing the southern hard-rock genre during the 1970s</li>
<li><strong>The Velvet Underground was</strong> an American rock band, active between 1964 and 1973</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Out of the top 35 British bands listed in Wikepedia as being the most successful, 18 have singular names. As I write this, only one, Genesis, has a singular verb in iis Wikipedia introduction.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>'The band'</em> at the NME</h3>
<div class="m10">The New Musical Express is one of Britain's leading music magazines. These figures are from a Google site search:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>the band are<span class="nml"> - 78 <br />
(of the first 20, only one doesn't refer to the band as the subject)</span></li>
<li>the band is<span class="nml"> - 2 <br />
(with another 5 where band is not the subject)</span></li>
<li>the band have<span class="nml"> - 63 <br />
(of the first 20, all but one refer to the band as the subject)</span></li>
<li>the band has<span class="nml"> - 2 <br />
(with another 6 where band is not the subject)</span></li>
<li>the band were<span class="nml"> - 37 <br />
(of the first 20, all have band as subject)</span></li>
<li>the band was<span class="nml"> - 6 <br />
(plus 4 others where the band is not the subject)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Plural verbs with the names of football teams</h3>
<div class="m10">It's pretty clear that the use of plural verbs with singular team names is almost as popular in the social media as in the broadcast and print media, especially when we take into account that these social media figures include American users. The figures given are for checkable individual entries. Where there is also a figure in brackets it refers to Googles' front page count (which often bears no resemblance to the final count). I have removed those instances (very few) where I've noticed that Arsenal was not the subject of the verb.</div>
<table class="grammarTable" style="margin:10px auto;">
<tr class="instr"><td></td><td><em>"Arsenal have won the"</em></td><td><em>"Arsenal has won the"</em></td></tr>
<tr><td class="instr">The Web</td><td>165 (802,000)</td><td>138 (168,000)</td></tr>
<tr class="instr"><td colspan="3">Social media</td></tr>
<tr><td>Facebook</td><td>261 (185,000)</td><td>41 (8,750)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Twitter</td><td>569 (94,500)</td><td>58 (545)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Yahoo Answers</td><td>43</td><td>13</td></tr>
<tr><td>Wikipedia</td><td>6</td><td>1</td></tr>
<tr class="instr"><td colspan="3">The broadcast media</td></tr>
<tr><td>BBC</td><td>10 (133,000)</td><td>5</td></tr>
<tr><td>ITV</td><td>7</td><td>0</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sky Sports</td><td>5</td><td>0</td></tr>
<tr class="instr"><td colspan="3">The print media</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Guardian</td><td>6</td><td>1</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Independent</td><td>13</td><td>1</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Telegraph</td><td>7</td><td>1</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Times</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Express</td><td>13</td><td>0</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Mail</td><td>21</td><td>0</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Sun</td><td>6</td><td>0</td></tr>
<tr><td>The Mirror</td><td>6</td><td>0</td></tr>
<tr><td>FourFourTwo</td><td>3</td><td>0</td></tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>How it works</h3>
<div class="m10">For a little more detail, but in easy-to-follow language, we'll look at two of the best known grammar books in the EFL world. First, the book which is probably the most popular with EFL students for explanations and exercises for home study :</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">Some singular nouns are often used with a plural verb. For example:</div>
<div class="bQ" style="text-align:center;">government staff team family audience <br/>committee company firm</div>
<div class="m10">These nouns are all groups of people. We often think of them as a number of people (= 'they'), not as one thing (= 'it'). So we often use a plural verb:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>The government <span class="black">(= they)</span> want to increase taxes.</li>
<li>The staff at the school <span class="black">(= they)</span> are not happy with their new working conditions.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In the same way,we often use a plural verb after the name of a sports team or a company:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>Scotland are playing France next week <span class="black">(in a football match)</span></li>
<li>Shell have increased the price of petrol.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">A singular verb (<span class="bQ">The government wants ...</span> / <span class="bQ">Shell has ...</span> etc) is also possible.</div>
<div class="m10">These nouns normally take a singular verb in American English:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>The team is playing well</li>
</ul>
<p>Raymond Murphy - English Grammar in Use (Cambridge University Press)</p>
</div>
<div class="m10">And second, one of the most popular reference books amongst EFL teachers:</div>
<div class="cite4"><div class="m10">In British English, singular words like <span class="bQ">family, team, government</span>, which refer to groups of people, can be used with either singular or plural verbs and pronouns.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>This team is/are going to lose.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Plural forms are common when the group is considered as a collection of people doing things like deciding, hoping or wanting; and in all these cases we use who, not which, as a relative pronoun</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>The firm are wonderful. They do all they can for me.</li>
<li>The firm was founded in the 18th century.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Examples of group nouns which can be used with both singular and plural verbs in British English:</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">bank, the BBC, choir, class, club, committee, England <span class="black">(the football team)</span>, family, firm, government, jury, ministry, orchestra, party, school, staff, team, union</span></div><p>Michael Swan - Practical English Usage (Oxford University Press)</p></div>
</div>
<h3>Usage notes in British dictionaries</h3>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">In American English, most collective nouns are treated as singular, with a singular verb:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>The whole family was at the table.</li>
<li>The government is doing a good job.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In British English, most collective nouns can be treated as singular or plural:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>The whole family was at the table.</li>
<li>The whole family were at the table.</li>
<br />
<li>The government is doing a good job.</li>
<li>The government are doing a good job.</li>
</ul>
<p>Oxford Dictionaries US</p>
</div>
<div class="cite4"><div class="m10">In British English, collective nouns (referring to groups of people) are often followed by a plural verb even when the noun is singular. This does not occur in American English. For example:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="black">British English:</span> </span>The football team are rather weak this year.</li>
<li><span class="black">American English: </span>The football team is very weak this year.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Other common collective nouns that often take a plural verb in British English are: <span class="bQ">army, company, jury, audience, crowd, majority, class, enemy, staff, committee, government</span> and <span class="bQ">union</span>.'</div><p>Macmillan English Dictionaries</p></div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">In American usage, a collective noun takes a singular verb when it refers to the collection considered as a whole, as in <span class="bQ">The family was united on this question. The enemy is suing for peace.</span></div>
<div class="m10">It takes a plural verb when it refers to the members of the group considered as individuals, as in <span class="bQ">My family are always fighting among themselves. The enemy were showing up in groups of three or four to turn in their weapons.</span></div>
<div class="m10">In British usage, however, collective nouns are more often treated as plurals: <span class="bQ">The government have not announced a new policy. The team are playing in the test matches next week.</span></div> <p>The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, quoted at The Free Dictionary</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Comparing the use of verbs with that of pronouns</h3>
<div class="m10">One way of looking at it is if you would normally use a plural pronoun, it can make sense to use a plural verb.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>They're playing really well today, aren't they?</li>
<li>United are playing really well today, aren't they?</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">But if you're more likely to use <span class="bQ">it</span>, then singular is more appropriate</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>It was started in 1908</li>
<li>United was started in 1908</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Plural forms are used most often when the group is performing some kind of action, singular forms when we are talking more about the group's existence.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Getting a bit more technical</h3>
<h4>Notional agreement (or synesis) vs formal agreement</h4>
<div class="m10">This habit we have in British English of often seeing the group represented by a collective noun as a collection of individuals rather then a single unit is known as notional agreement or synesis. This idea of synesis goes back to Greek and Latin, where more importance is placed on the meaning of the noun and verb (or pronoun) agreement than on its strict grammatical form.</div>
<div class="m10">Notional agreement is in opposition to formal agreement, where a singular noun always takes a singular verb. </div>
<div class="cite4">Formal and notional agreement - In British English (BrE), collective nouns can take either singular (formal agreement) or plural (notional agreement) verb forms, according to whether the emphasis is on the body as a whole or on the individual members respectively; compare <span class="bQ">a committee was appointed</span> with <span class="bQ">the committee were unable to agree</span>. Compare also the following lines of Elvis Costello's song "Oliver's Army": Oliver's Army is here to stay / Oliver's Army are on their way . Some of these nouns, for example staff, actually combine with plural verbs most of the time. <p>Wikipedia</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Synesis - a construction in which an expected grammatical agreement in form is replaced by an agreement in meaning, as in <span class="bQ">The crowd rose to their feet</span>, where a plural pronoun is used to refer to a singular noun. <p>Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary, quoted in the Free Dictionary</p></div>
<h4>Collective nouns and nouns of multitude</h4>
<div class="m10">In some older grammars, collective nouns are referred to as nouns of multitude. In others a distiction is made between a collective noun - a group noun when seen as a single entity and used with a singular verb and/or pronoun(s), and a noun of multitude - a group noun seen as a group of individuals and used with a plural verb and /or pronoun(s).</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The Grand Old Men of 20th comment on British English</h3>
<div class="m10">Henry Fowler's <em>A Dictionary of Modern English Usage</em>, Sir Ernest Gowers' <em>The Complete Plain Words</em> and Eric Partridge's <em>Usage and Abusage</em> were probably the books which had most influence on the general public in 20th century Britain. Here is what their authors had to say on the matter:</div>
<div class="cite4"><span class="bQ">Flock</span> (a number of sheep or parishioners) is a collective ... and may be treated as a singular or plural (<span class="bQ">His flock was attacked by wolves. His flock were unanimous in their disapproval</span>) <p>H.W.Fowler - A Dictionary of Modern English Usage</p></div>
<div class="cite4">In using collective words or nouns of multitude (<span class="bQ">Department, Parliament, Government, Committee</span> and the like), ought we to say <span class="bQ">"the Government have decided"</span> or <span class="bQ">"the Government has decided"</span>; <span class="bQ">"the Committee are meeting"</span> or <span class="bQ">"the Committee is meeting"</span>? There is no rule; either a singular or plural verb may be used. The plural is more suitable when the emphasis is on the individual members, and the singular when it is on the body as a whole. <span class="bQ">"A committee was appointed to consider this subject"</span>; <span class="bQ">"the committee were unable to agree"</span>. <p>Sir Ernest Gowers - The Handling of Words</p></div>
<div class="cite4">Such collective nouns as can be used either in the singular or in the plural (<span class="bQ">family, clergy, committee, parliament</span>) are singular when unity (a unit) is intended; plural, when the idea of plurality is predominant. <p>Eric Partridge - Usage and Abusage</p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>British media style guides</h3>
<div class="m10">This is from the Economist Style Guide:</div>
<div class="cite4">"COLLECTIVE NOUNS<br />
There is no firm rule about the number of a verb governed by a singular collective noun. It is best to go by the sense—that is, whether the collective noun stands for a single entity (<span class="bQ">The council was elected in March, The me generation has run its course, The staff is loyal</span>) or for its constituents: (<span class="bQ">The council are at sixes and sevens, The preceding generation are all dead, The staff are at each other's throats</span>). Do not, in any event, slavishly give all singular collective nouns singular verbs: <span class="bQ">The couple are now living apart</span> is preferable to <span class="bQ">The couple is now living apart</span>. Indeed, in general, treat both <span class="bQ">a pair</span> and <span class="bQ">a couple</span> as plural."</div>
<div class="m10">From the Guardian Style Guide:</div>
<div class="cite4"><div class="m10">"singular or plural?
Corporate entities take the singular: eg <span class="bQ">The BBC has decided</span> (not "have"). In subsequent references make sure the pronoun is singular: <span class="bQ">"It</span> [not "they"] <span class="bQ">will press for an increase in the licence fee."</span></div>
<div class="m10">Sports teams and rock bands are the exception – <span class="bQ">"England have an uphill task"</span> is OK, as is <span class="bQ">'Nirvana were overrated'</span></div></div>
<span class="m10">From the BBC Style Guide:</span>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">It is the policy of BBC Radio News that collective nouns should be plural, as in <span class="bQ">The Government have decided</span>. Other departments, such as BBC Online, have resolved that collective nouns should always be singular, as in <span class="bQ">The Government has decided</span>. BBC Television News has no policy and uses whichever sounds best in context.The difficulty for writers comes because there is no rule.</div>
<div class="m10">Collective nouns can be either singular or plural. The advice from Radio News is fine, but think about what you are saying. A lot depends on whether the organisation is seen as a singular entity or as a collection of individuals. It is more natural to write <span class="bQ">The committee park their cars in the field</span> rather than <span class="bQ">The committee parks its cars</span> because the committee is being thought of as separate people. It would also be correct to write <span class="bQ">The committee has decided to ban cars from the field</span> because it is being seen as a single body.</div>
<div class="m10">Similarly, <span class="bQ">The Cabinet are discussing education </span>(because it takes more than one to have a discussion) but <span class="bQ">The Cabinet is determined to push through the changes</span> (where its members are acting together). There is one rule you must follow, though: </div>
<div class="m10">In sport, teams are always plural. <span class="bQ">England are expected to beat the Balearic Islands</span> ; <span class="bQ">Tranmere Rovers have extended their lead at the top of the Premiership.</span></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Back to the beginning - earlier English grammars</h3>
<h4>Robert Lowth</h4>
<div class="m10">Robert Lowth FRS (1710 – 1787) was a Bishop of the Church of England, Oxford Professor of Poetry and the author of one of the most influential textbooks of English grammar. (Wikpedia) He is often regarded as the father of prescriptive grammar.</div>
<div class="cite4"><div class="m10">A noun of multitude, [9] or signifying many, may have the verb and pronoun agreeing with it, either in the singular or plural number ; yet not without regard to the import of the word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea : as, <span class="bQ">"My people is foolish, they have not known me."</span> Jer. iv. 22. <span class="bQ">"The assembly of the wicked have enclosed me."</span> Psal. xxii. 1 6. perhaps more properly than <span class="bQ">"hath enclosed me." "The assembly was very numerous :"</span> much more properly, than, <span class="bQ">"were very numerous."</span> </div>
<div class="m10">[9]<span class="bQ">'And restore to his island, that tranquillity and repose, to which they been strangers during his absence.'</span> Pope, differentiation prefixed to the Odyssey. <em>Island </em>is not a noun of multitude; it ought to be his <em>people</em>; or, <em>it</em> had been a <em>stranger</em>.</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">'What reason have the church of Rome to talk of modesty in this case ?'</span> Tillotson, Serm. 1.49</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">'There is indeed no constitution so tame and careless of tbelr own defence, where any person dares to give the least sign or intimation of being a traitor in heart.'</span> Addison, Freeholder, No. 53.</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">'All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but his follies and vices are innumerable.'</span> Swift, Preface to Tale of a Tub. Is not <em>mankind</em> in this place a noun of multitude, and such as require the pronoun referring to it to be in the plural number, <em>their</em>? </div>
<p>A Short Introduction to English Grammar, Robert Lowth, 1755</p>
</div>
<h4>Joseph Priestley</h4>
<div class="m10">Joseph Priestley FRS (1733 – 1804) was an 18th-century English theologian, Dissenting clergyman, natural philosopher, chemist, educator, and Liberal political theorist who published over 150 works. (Wikipedia). Priestley was much less prescriptivist than Lowth, much morte tolerant of objective <span class="bQ">who</span> and constructions like <span class="bQ">it's me</span>, for example.</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">It is very common to consider a collective noun as divided into the parts of
which it consists, and to adapt the construction of the sentence to those parts, and not to the whole. <span class="bQ">If an academy
should be established for the cultivation of our style, which I, who can never wish to fee dependence multiplied, hope the spirit of English liberty will hinder, or destroy; let them, instead of compiling grammars and dictionaries, endeavour with all their influence to stop the license of translators ; whose idleness and ignorance, if it be suffered to proceed, will reduce us to babble a dialect of French.</span> Johnson. <span class="bQ">Let the members of it</span> would have been better. In this manner pronouns often mislead perfons. <span class="bQ">Whatever related to ecclesiastical meetings, matters, and persons, were to be ordered according to such directioans as the king should send to his privy council. </span>Hume's History, vol. 8. p. 49. <span class="bQ">Can any person, on their entrance into the world be fully secure, that they shall not be deceived.</span> Fair American, vol. 2. p. 26.</div>
<div class="m10">It is a rule respecting numbers, that nouns of a singular termination, but of a plural signification, may admit of a verb either singular or plural ; but this is by no means arbitrary. We ought to consider whether the term will immediately suggest the idea of the number it represents, or whether it exhibit to the mind the idea of the whole, as one thing. In the former case, the verb ought to be plural, in the latter it ought to be singular. Thus it seems harsh to say with Harvey in Johnson, <span class="bQ">In France the peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort, through all that kingdom, makes use of wooden shoes.</span> It would be better to say, <span class="bQ">the peasantry go bare foot and the middle sort make use</span> &c, because the idea, in both these cases, is that of a number. But words expressing the greatest numbers may be used in a singular construction, if the ideas they convey may be conceived at once; as, <span class="bQ">a hundred pounds a great many men,</span> &c. </div>
<div class="m10">On the contrary, there is an harshness in the following sentences of Hume, in which nouns of number have verbs plural, because the ideas they represent seem not to be sufficiently divided, as it were, in the mind, <span class="bQ">The court of Rome were not without solicitude. The house of commom were of small weight. The house of lords were so much infuenced by these reasons.</span> Hume's Hiftory, vol. 8. p. 108, <span class="bQ">Stephen's party were entirely broke up by the captivity of their leader.</span> Ib. vol. i- p. 306. <span class="bQ">An army of twentyfour thousand were assembled.</span> One would think that naming the actual number of men, of which the army consfisted, would be sufficlent to break the idea into its proper parts ; but I think that the effect of this sentence upon the ear proves the contrary. An army, though consisting of ever so many men, is still one thing, and the verb ought to be in the singular number. </div>
<p>The Rudiments of English Grammar, Joseph Priestley</p>
</div>
<h4>Lindley Murray</h4>
<div class="m10">Lindley Murray (1745 – 1826), was an American grammarian who spent much time in Britain, and whose <em>English grammar, adapted to the different classes of learners</em> (1795) was enormously infliential on both sides of the Atlantic. He is often considered the (prescriptive) heir to Lowth.</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">RULE IV.</div>
<div class="m10">A noun of multitude, or signifying; many, may have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either of the singular or plural number; yet not without regard to the import of the word, as conveying unity or plurality of
idea ; as, <span class="bQ">"The meeting was large;" "The parliament is dissolved ;" "The nation is powerful;" "My people do not consider : they have not known me ;" " The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as their chief good;", "The council were divided in their sentiments."</span> </div><p>English grammar, adapted to the different classes of learners, by Lindley Murray</p>
</div>
<div class="m10">Murray seems to have lifted most of the next section directly from Joseph Priestley and Robert Lowth:</div>
<div class="cite4">We ought to consider whether the term will immediately suggest the idea of the number it represents, or whether it exhibits to the mind the idea of the whole as one thing. In the former case, the verb ought to be plural ; in the latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, it seems improper to say, <span class="bQ">"The peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes."</span> It would be better to say, <span class="bQ">"The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use,"</span> &c because the idea in both these cases, is that of a number. On the contrary, there is a harshness in the following sentences, in which nouns of number have verbs plural; because the ideas they represent seem not to be sufficiently divided in the mind, <span class="bQ">"The court of Rome were not without solicitude." "The house of commons were of small weight." "The house of lords were so much influenced by these reasons." "Stephen's party were entirely broken up by the captivity of their leader." " An army of twenty-four thousand were assembled." " What reason have the church of Rome for proceeding in this manner ?" "There is indeed no constitution so tame and careless of their own defence." "All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but his follies and vices are innumerable."</span> Is not mankind in this place a noun of multitude, and such as requires the pronoun referring to it to be in the plural number, <span class="bQ">their</span>?<p>English grammar, adapted to the different classes of learners, by Lindley Murray</p>
</div>
<h4>William Cobbett</h4>
<div class="m10">William Cobbett (1763 – 1835) was an English pamphleteer, farmer and journalist (Wikipedia). Amongst other things he published a grammar book, in the form of letters to his son.</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">244. The nominative is frequently a noun of multitude ; as, <span class="bQ">mob, parliament, gang</span>. Now, where this is the case, the Verb is used in the singular or in the plural, upon precisely the same principles that the pronouns are so used ; and as these principles, together with ample illustrations by the way of example, have been given you in Letter XVII, paragraph 181, I need say nothing more of the matter. I will just observe, however, that <em>consistency</em>, in the use of the Verb, in such cases, is the main thing to keep in view. We may say, <span class="bQ">"The gang of borough-tyrants <em>is</em> cruel"</span>, or, <span class="bQ">"that the gang of borough-tyrants <em>are</em> cruel;"</span> but if we go on to speak of their notoriously brutal ignorance, we must not say, <span class="bQ">"The gang of borough-tyrants <em>is</em> cruel, and <em>are</em> also notoriously as ignorant as brutes."</span> We must use <em>is</em> in both places, or <em>are</em> in both places. </div>
</div>
<div class="m10">Earlier, Cobbett had talked about using singular or plural pronouns with collective nouns:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">181. Nouns of number, or multitude, such as <span class="bQ">Mob, Parliament, Rabble, House of Commons, Regiment, Court of King's Bench, Den of Thieves</span>, and the like, may have Pronouns agreeing with them either in the singular or in the plural number; for we may, for instance, say of the House of Commons, <span class="bQ">"<em>They</em> refused to hear evidence against Castlereagh when Mr. Maddox accused him of having sold a seat;"</span> or, <span class="bQ">"<em>It</em> refused to hear evidence."</span> But we must be uniform in our use of the Pronoun in this respect. We must not, in the same sentence, and applicable to the same noun, use the singular in one part of the sentence and the plural in another part. We must not, in speaking of the House of Commons, for instance, say, <span class="bQ">"<em>They</em> one year voted unanimously that cheap corn was an evil, and the next year <em>it</em> voted unanimously that dear corn was an evil."</span> There are persons who pretend to make very nice distinctions as to the cases when these nouns of multitude ought to take the singular, and when they ought to take the plural, Pronoun ; but these distinctions are too nice to be of any real use. The rule is this: that nouns of multitude may take either the singular, or the plural, Pronoun; but not both in the same sentence.</div>
</div>
<div class="m10">Robert Waters, the editor of this 1901 New York edition was not at all happy with that last point of Cobbett's:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">This will never do; it is far too indefinite. The pronoun standing for a noun of multitude is used in the singular if the idea of <em>unity</em> is to be conveyed, and in the plural if the idea of <em>plurality</em> is to be conveyed. Let me illustrate with some of these very nouns which Cobbett so sarcastically huddles together: <span class="bQ">"The mob now began to scatter in every direction, and <em>they</em> set up a hideous yell as <em>they</em> moved off. The mob came on in one compact body, and <em>it</em> did not fail to press <em>itself</em> through the gates of the palace. He listed the rabble, because <em>they</em> hated him. The rabble of New York <em>has</em> a language and a literature of <em>its</em> own. The House of Commons could not agree on any measure of Reform ; so <em>they</em> were dismissed by the king. The House of Commons <em>was</em> unanimous in condemning the obstructing Irish members, and <em>it</em> suspended them for two weeks. When the Court of King's Bench passed sentence on Mr. Cobbett, <em>it</em> refused to reconsider <em>its</em> decision. I have been informed that there was some difference of opinion in the Court of King's Bench concerning Mr. Cobbett's case, though <em>they</em> refused to reconsider <em>their</em> decision. Here <em>is</em> a den of thieves; suppress <em>it</em>. We came upon a den of thieves, who were so numerous that we did not venture to attack <em>them</em>."</span> Thus, you see, that the singularity or plurality of the pronoun standing for a noun of multitude depends entirely upon whether an idea of <em>unity</em> or of <em>plurality</em> is to be conveyed. </div>
<p>A Grammar of the English Language, William Cobbett <a href="https://archive.org/stream/englishgrammarof00cobb#page/152/mode/2up">Archive.org</a></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>British textbooks and grammar books from the late 19th and early 20th centuries</h3>
<div class="m10">The first extract is from a book by J.M.D. Meiklejohn, who was professor of the theory, history and practice of education in the University of St.Andrews.</div>
<div class="cite4">Rule XXIX. — Collective Nouns take a singular verb or a plural verb, as the notion of unity or of plurality is uppermost in the mind of the speaker. Thus we say : <span class="bQ">"Parliament was dissolved."</span> <span class="bQ">"The committee are divided in opinion."</span> <p>The English Language: Its Grammar, History, and Literature<br />
by JMD Meiklejohn, Edinburgh 1886<br />
<a href="https://archive.org/stream/englishlanguage06meikgoog#page/n90/mode/2up">Archive.org</a></p></div>
<div class="m10">The second book is by William Davidson & Joseph Crosby Alcock, co-authors of more than half-a-dozen books on grammar and composition. </div>
<div class="cite4"><div class="m10">II. Collective common nouns denote several individuals as one object : as, <span class="bQ">herd, flock, army</span>. </div>
<div class="m10">Obs. — Collective nouns sometimes convey plurality of idea, and thus refer to the
individuals making up the group rather than to the group itself : as, <span class="bQ">The medical faculty have resolved to act in unison</span> ; <span class="bQ">The public</span> (i.e. the persons composing the
public) <span class="bQ">are wavering</span>. Such nouns are then called, by some, Nouns of Multitude. </div>
<p><a href="https://archive.org/stream/englishgrammaran00davirich#page/22/mode/2up">Archive.org</a></p>
<div class="m10">(Personal pronouns) Obs. 3.— The pronoun must be singular number when it stands for a collective noun
conveying unity of idea : as, <span class="bQ">The army was on its way to the scene of action</span>. The
pronoun must be plural number when it stands for a collective noun conveying plurality of idea : as, <span class="bQ">The Council are divided in their opinions.</span>
</div>
<p><a href="https://archive.org/stream/englishgrammaran00davirich#page/160/mode/2up">Archive.org</a></p>
<div class="m10">(relative pronouns) Obs. 3. — A collective noun followed by a singular verb is neuter gender and requires <span class="bQ">which</span> or <span class="bQ">that</span> ; but when it is followed by a plural verb, it is masculine, feminine, or common gender, and requires <span class="bQ">who</span> or <span class="bQ">that</span>.</div>
<p><a href="https://archive.org/stream/englishgrammaran00davirich#page/164/mode/2up">Archive.org</a></p>
<div class="m10">352. Rule LVII. When the nominative is a collective noun conveying unity of idea, the verb is singular ; but when it is acollective noun conveying plurality of idea, the verb is plural:
as, <span class="bQ">The crowd is silent</span> ; <span class="bQ">The crowd are excited</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">Explanation. — When crowd conveys unity of idea, it requires the verb to be singular,
in ; <span class="bQ">The crowd </span>(as one body) <span class="bQ">is silent</span>. When crowd conveys plurality of idea, it requires the verb to be plural, <span class="bQ">are excited</span> ; The crowd (as separate persons, each of them are excited.</div>
<p><a href="https://archive.org/stream/englishgrammaran00davirich#page/170/mode/2up">Archive.org</a></p>
<p>English grammar and analysis, William Davidson & Joseph Crosby Alcock, London 1889<br />
</p></div>
<div class="m10">The next book was aimed at 'boys and girls from thirteen to seventeen years of age', and written by Alfred S. West, Fellow of University College, London.</div>
<div class="cite4">Collective nouns are also called Nouns of Multitude, and in using them we sometimes think of the individuals included in the group rather than of the group as a whole. Hence these nouns are found with either singular or plural predicates. We may say <span class="bQ">'Parliament was unanimous,'</span> if the thought uppermost in our minds is the assembly as a whole, but we may say <span class="bQ">'Parliament were all sixes and sevens,'</span> if we are thinking of the assembly as divided into different parties. <p>The Elements of Grammar, Alfred S West, Toronto 1907<br />
<a href="https://archive.org/stream/elementsof07west00westuoft#page/74/mode/2up">Archive.org</a></p></div>
<div class="m10">This extract is from a textbook by J.C.Nesfield, who wrote several books for the publishers, Macmillans, including this one- Manual of English Grammar and Composition, English Grammar Past and Present and Historical English and Derivation. This book is quite detailed and may well have been aimed more at university students.</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">24. A Collective Noun is a name for a group of similar
individuals, the group being one complete whole.</div>
<div class="m10">For instance, there may be many sheep in a field, but only one flock.
Here <span class="bQ">"sheep"</span> is a Common noun, because it may stand for any and
every sheep; but <span class="bQ">"flock"</span> is a Collective noun, because it stands for
all the sheep at once, and not for any one sheep taken separately. </div>
<div class="m10">Note 1. — A Collective Noun may be either Common or Proper: </div>
<div class="m10">Thus the term <span class="bQ">"flock"</span> may stand for many different flocks. But
<span class="bQ">Parliament, the House of Commons</span>, can stand for only one body. </div>
<div class="m10">Note 2. — A Noun of Multitude, since it denotes a specific group,
must be classed as Collective ; but with a difference. </div>
<div class="m10">(a) A Collective noun denotes one undivided whole; and hence the
verb following is singular:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>The jury consists of twelve persons.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">(b) A noun of Multitude denotes the individuals of the group ;
and hence the verb is plural, although the noun is singular:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>The jury (the men on the jury) were divided in their opinions. </li>
</ul>
<p>Manual of English Grammar and Composition, J.C. Nesfield, London 1908<br />
<a href="https://archive.org/stream/manualofenglishg00nesf#page/16/mode/2up">Archive.org</a></p>
</div>
<div class="m10">And this is from 'a course of English Grammar for schools' by John D. Rose, Rector of the Kirkcaldy High School </div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">A Collective Noun (or Noun of Multitude) is a name that belongs to a group of individuals, but not to any single individual in that group — e.g. <span class="bQ">army, police, club, mob, flock</span>. </div>
<div class="m10">Collective Nouns generally have a Singular Verb, but when you think more of the individuals in the group than of the group as a single whole the verb may be plural — e.g.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>The mob assembles</li>
<li class="normal" style="list-style:none;">but</li>
<li>The mob throw stones.</li>
</ul>
<p>John D. Rose - Advanced English Grammar through Composition, London 1917 <a href="https://archive.org/stream/advancedenglishg00roseuoft#page/6/mode/2up">Archive.org</a></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Sir Lancelot Oliphant, author of 20th century textbooks</h3>
<div class="m10">Oliphant was a diplomat and the author of several grammar books for British schools:
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="normal">A General Certificate English Course (1928)</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">An English Matriculation Course (1930)</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">A Short Course in English Grammar (1936)</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">English in Action (Discussions on English Grammar) (1946)</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">English Observed, Common Errors in Written English (1955)</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">I've no idea how widespread the use of his books was, but the fact that first one was still being reprinted in 1966, and that one of them sits on the shelves of Neville Gwynne suggests that his books were quite well-known at the time. <em>In English Observed</em>, he has one question related to collective nouns where he allows either a singular or plural verb:</div>
</div>
<div class="cite4"><div class="m10">The frenzied mob was now seen at their worst.</div>
<div class="m10">(A collective noun in the singular may be followed by a verb in the singular or the plural, according as we regard a thing as an undivided whole or as consisting of individuals that compose the whole. But the noun cannot be treated as both singular and plural at the same time. Write, <span class="b">‘The frenzied mob was now seen at its worst’</span>; or, <span class="bQ">‘The frenzied mob were now seen at their worst’</span>.) <p>English Observed, Common Errors in Written English, Lancelot Oliphant</p></div>
</div>
<div class="m10">He doesn't allow notional agreement, however, with <span class="bQ">an assortment of</span> - I wonder what he would have said about <span class="bQ">a number of</span>, where a plural verb is often seen as more natural:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">A curious assortment of goods were to be seen in the shop.</div> <div class="m10">(When a plural noun depends on a preceding singular noun, the verb is sometimes wrongly made to agree with the plural noun next to it. In the sentence given, assortment, a noun in the singular, is the real subject of the verb, and this verb should therefore be in the singular also. Write, ‘A curious assortment of goods was to be seen in the shop’.)</div> <p>English Observed, Common Errors in Written English, Lancelot Oliphant</p></div>
<div class="m10">Rather like Fowler before him, Oliphant seems to have been a strange mixture of prescriptivist and descriptivist. In a section called 'Words commonly misused' as well as the usual suspects like <span class="bQ">literally</span> and <span class="bQ">decimate</span>, he lists the following - the comments after each are from Oxford Dictionaries Online (ODO):</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="instr">aggravating</span><span class="normal"> - shouldn't be to mean annoying, only to make heavier or worse</span><br />
<span class="odo">ODO list the annoying meaning as informal but point out that it dates back to the 17th century 'and has been so used by respected writers ever since', although disliked by traditionalists.</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">awfully</span><span class="normal"> - shouldn't be used to mean very - awful means ‘inspiring fear or reverence’</span><br />
<span class="odo">ODO list Oliphant's preferred meaning of awful as archaic.</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">demean</span><span class="normal"> - doesn't mean lower or debase yourself - it simply means conduct yourself</span><br />
<span class="odo">ODO gives the debase meaning and makes no mention of Oliphant's definition</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">nice</span><span class="normal"> - means ‘fastidious’, ‘delicate’, ‘refined’, and should not be used indiscriminately to mean ‘pleasant’, ‘agreeable’, or ‘beautiful’.</span><br />
<span class="odo">ODO list Oliphant's preferred definitions as archaic</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">practically</span><span class="normal"> - shouldn't be used to mean almost (although it's OK in conversation). His definition is more like 'in practice'</span><br />
<span class="odo">ODO list almost as its main meaning, and also in a practical manner, but not in practice</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">I certainly remember being taught something similar about <span class="bQ">nice</span> at school. Now a lot of this can just be put down to the fact meanings can change, and I can forgive him eveything because of this next passage, with which he apparently ended <em>A General Certificate English Course</em>: </div>
<div class="cite4">
Lastly think for yourself. For suprisingly few people do think for themselves, especially young people. They find it easier to take their opinions secondhand, and to follow blindly where others lead. We therefore say again: Think for yourself. And, what is more, do not be overawed by "authority". There are no sacrosanct fixed rules in English which you are bound to obey. Nevertheless, in this book we shall frequently speak of rules, for there are certain provisional rules which, as a comparative beginner, you will do well to respect, but that is no reason why you should submissively accept them for the rest of your life. When, however, you do break a rule let there be some good reason for breaking it. You will be judged by the result. <p>A General Certificate English Course, Lancelot Oliphant, OUP 1928</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>American grammars</h3>
<div class="m10">What surprised me is that there is really no difference between British and American Grammarians on this issue; the difference between us seems to be entirely one of usage. But because many American only hear and see collective nouns being used with singular verbs, they not unnaturally think it is a golden rule.</div>
<div class="m10">Famous for his dictionary, Noah Webster also wrote about grammar. This is from <em>A Grammatical Institute of the English Language</em> </div>
<div class="cite4"><div class="m10">Rule 3,</div>
<div class="m10">Nouns of multitude, though they are in the singular number, may have a verb and pronoun agreeing with
them either in the singular or plural.</div>
<div class="m10">EXAMPLES</div>
<div class="m10">The assembly is or are very numerous ; they are much divided. "My people is or are foolish ; they have not known me. The company was or were noisy. </div>
<div class="m10">EXPLANATION
Assembly is a noun of multitude, and may be united with is in the singular, or with are in the plural number. The
same is observable of people and company.</div>
<div class="m`10">We should have strict regard to the meaning of these collective nouns, in determining whether the singular or plural number is most proper to be joined with them. And if the indefinite article <em>a</em> or <em>an</em> precedes the noun, the verb must be singular ; as, "<em>a company was</em> &c"</div>
<p>A Grammatical Institute of the English Language, Part II, Noah Webster <a href="https://archive.org/stream/agrammaticalins00websgoog#page/n38/mode/2up">Archive</a></p>
</div>
<div class="m10">The next extract is from a book by Noah Webster’s son-in-law, William Chauncey Fowler, who was a professor, clergyman and legislator.</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">509. Rule XXVII. — When a verb has for its subject a Collective noun, it can agree with it either in the Singular or the Plural number; as, <span class="bQ">"The council is or are unanimous;"</span> <span class="bQ">"The company was or were collected;"</span> <span class="bQ">"A part of the exports consists or consist of raw silk."</span></div>
<div class="m10">Note I. — When the collective noun indicates unity, a Singular verb should be used; when it indicates plurality, a Plural verb should be used. In general, modern practice inclines to the use of a plural verb, especially when persons and not things are signified by the collective noun ; as, <span class="bQ">"The clergy began to withdraw themselves from the temporal courts."</span> — Blackstone. <span class="bQ">"The chorus prepare resistance at his first approach; the chorus sings of the battle."</span> — Johnson's Life of Milton.</div>
<div class="m10">Note II. — The most common mistakes in the application of this rule occur in the use of sort and kind, with a plural pronoun ; as, "These sort are good;" "those kind are bad;" for this sort, that kind.</div>
<div class="m10">When a collective noun is preceded by a definitive which clearly limits the sense of the word to the idea of unity, it requires a verb and a pronoun to agree with it in the singular number ; as, <span class="bQ">"A company of troops was raised ;"</span> <span class="bQ">"This people has become a great nation."</span></div><p>English grammar
the English language in its elements and forms, with a history of its origin and development, designed for use in colleges and schools, William Chauncey Fowler, New York 1876 <a href="https://archive.org/stream/englishgrammaren00fowluoft#page/586/mode/2up/search/XXVII">Archive</a></p>
</div>
<div class="m10">William Malone Baskervill (1850–1899) was a writer and professor of the English language and literature at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. James Witt Sewell (1865–1955) was a writer and professor of the English language at the Hume-Fogg High School, also in Nashville. (Wikipedia)</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">440 (2) The singular form of the verb is used ... when the subject is a collective noun which represents a number of persons or things taken as one unit; as,—</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>The larger breed [of camels] is capable of transporting a weight of a thousand pounds.<span class="normal">—Gibbon.</span></li>
<li>Another school professes entirely opposite principles.<span class="normal">—The Nation.</span></li>
<li>A number of jeweled paternosters was attached to her girdle.<span class="normal">—Froude.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">This usage, like some others in this series, depends mostly on the writer's own judgment. Another writer might, for example, prefer a plural verb after number in Froude's sentence above.</div>
<div class="m10">(2) The plural form of the verb is used... when the subject is a collective noun in which the individuals of the collection are thought of; as,—</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>A multitude go mad about it.<span class="normal">—Emerson.</span></li>
<li>A great number of people were collected at a vendue.<span class="normal">—Franklin</span>.</li>
<li>All our household are at rest.<span class="normal">—Coleridge.</span></li>
</ul>
<p>An English Grammar for the Use of High School, Academy and College Classes, W.M.Baskerville and J.W.Sewell, 1895</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>A couple of modern American usage guides</h3>
<h4>Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage</h4>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">Collective nouns ... have had the characteristic of being used with both singular and plural verbs since Middle English. The principle involved - referred to elsewhere in this book as notional agreement - is simple: when the group is considered as a unit, the singular verb is used; when it is thought of as a collection of individuals, the plural verb is used. All grammarians and usage commentators agree on the basic sentence.</div>
<div class="m10">Those commentators who mention British-American differences agree in general that singular verbs are more common in American English and plural verbs more common in British English. Beyond this generality it can be unsafe to venture; where notional agreement operates, there are no absolutes.</div>
<div class="m10">The difference between British and American English usage may be illustrated by the word 'family'. ".</div>
</div>
<div class="m10">And from various studies they draw several conclusions, including:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="normal">Plural forms are more common in BrE, although there is a little bit of resistance to things like <span class="bQ">'his family are'</span>.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">In BrE plural forms are used more often in speaking than in writing.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">While in American English the singular is more common, plurals are not unknown, and they quote from Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby, from Time Magazine and form Erich Segal writing in the NYT.</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>Garner's Modern American English</h4>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">Apart from the desire for consistency, there is little "right" or "wrong" on this subject: collective nouns sometimes take a singular verb and sometimes a plural one. The trend in AmE is to regard the collective noun as expressing a unit: hence the singular is the usual form. </div>
<div class="m10">Just the opposite habit generally obtains in BrE, where collective nouns tend to take plural verbs.</div>
</div>
<div class="m10">Interestingly, Garner then suggests that in the early days after the revolution, American usage was closer to current British practice, but that has diverged since. He finishes:</div>
<div class="cite4">You can't be doctrinaire on this point of usage ... These are questions more of local idiom than of correct or incorrect grammar.<p><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=mVcJqKs1isUC&pg=PA164&lpg=PA164&dq=bryan+garner+collective+verbs&source=bl&ots=zuuXpCTeCA&sig=J5qG3sAY3YfWAUTbGehmSklDAEU&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bIh4U4SrM-_Q7AalxoDACg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=bryan%20garner%20collective%20verbs&f=false">Garner's Modern American Usage - Google Books</a></p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Nineteenth-century examples of plural verbs with team names</h3>
<div class="m10">Some people think this is a particularly recent phenomenon, but plural verbs seem to have been used wirth team names ever since teams started appearing in the nineteenth century. This seems to have been particularly the case with cricket. These are all from Google Books and are easily checkable.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Sussex were put in the last innings for forty-eight runs. <br /><span class="normal">Sporting Magazine 1828</span></li>
<li>Whilst we are writing Kent are playing Sussex their return match at Tunbridge Wells. <br /><span class="normal">Baily's Magazine 1860</span></li>
<li>and in 1862 Eton were declared the victors late on the afternoon of Saturday. <br /><span class="normal">The Saturday Review 1865</span></li>
<li>and before the clock struck 6, the M.C.C. were all out for 112. <br /><span class="normal">John Wisden's Cricket Almanack 1870</span></li>
<li>When Cambridge were out for 134 there was much shaking of heads. <br /><span class="normal">Baily's Magazine 1877</span></li>
<li>In the cricket match between Oxford and Cambridge, the former were beaten by two hundred and eixty-six runs. <br /><span class="normal">The Liberal and the New Dispensation 1893</span></li>
<li>The Australian team have defeated the Derby eleven by an innings and seventy-one runs. <br /><span class="normal">Ibid 1893</span></li>
<li>Is it that Sheffield United are really so good as their League position indicates? <br /><span class="normal">The Sketch 1895</span></li>
<li>The Rugby 'Varsity battle is over, and Cambridge are the winners. <br /><span class="normal">The Sketch 1895</span></li>
<li>Yorkshire are so sure of winning the championship that ... . <br /><span class="normal">The Truth 1895</span></li>
<li>Scotland are playing two distinct teams against Wales and Ireland. <br /><span class="normal">Baily's Magazine 1896</span></li>
<li>when the match ended Harrow were by no means in a bad position. <br /><span class="normal">Cricket, a Weekly Record 1896</span></li>
<li>In this match Gloucestershire were quite outplayed. <br /><span class="normal">Cricket, a Weekly Record 1896</span></li>
<li>Cardiff are, perhaps, the best team in the principality. <br /><span class="normal">Country Life Illustrated 1897</span></li>
<li>Surrey are again showing themselves to be somewhat of a fair weather team. <br /><span class="normal">Country Life Illustrated 1897</span></li>
<li>Sheffield United are still at the top of the tree in the League matches. <br /><span class="normal">Truth 1897</span></li>
<li>Yorkshire were again beaten by 140 runs. The North of England were beaten by 42 runs at Manchester. Hampshire were defeated by an innings and 25 runs. <br /><span class="normal">Whitaker's Almanack 1897</span></li>
<li>Bristol are running Southampton a close race for the championship. <br /><span class="normal">Baily's Magazine 1897</span> </li>
<li>Since 1890 Oxford have won nine races in succession. <br /><span class="normal">Badminton Library of Sports and Pastimes 1898</span></li>
<li>South Australia were dismissed in their second venture for 32. <br /><span class="normal">The Ludgate Illustrated Magazine 1898</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Charles Dickens</h3>
<div class="m10">Dickens (1812 - 1870), often considered the geatest of Victorian novelists (Wikipedia), didn't seem averse to using the occasional plural verb with collective nouns.</div>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">As a fiddle and tambourine <strong>band were</strong> sitting among the company, Quickear suggested why not strike up?<p>The Uncommercial Traveller</p></div>
<div class="m10">The band were seated opposite us <p>Adelaide Anne Procter, in The Atlantic Monthly 1881</p></div>
<div class="m10">The Committee were embellished also ; and when they entered the ladies' ordinary in a body, there was much clapping of hands from ladies and gentlemen <p>The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit</p></div>
<div class="m10">The family were delighted. Splendid view of the sea from the front windows — charming ! A short pause. Back came Mrs. Tuggs again. — One parlour, and a mattress. " Why the devil didn't they say so at first ?" inquired Mr. Joseph Tuggs, ... <p>The Tuggs's at Ramsgate</p></div>
<div class="m10">A certain Mrs. Tickit, who was Cook and Housekeeper when the family were at home, and Housekeeper only when the family were away, completed the establishment.<p>Little Dorritt</p></div>
<div class="m10">to inspect the furniture and fittingsup of the house, which the young couple were to tenant, after the Christmas holidays<p>The Pickwick Papers</p></div>
<div class="m10">But, the happy couple were not going to part with him in that way, and before he had been on board two minutes, there they were, looking down at him from the wharf above<p>Our Mutual Friend</p></div>
<div class="m10">repeated everybody, as that unhappy pair were discovered<p>Sketches by Boz</p></div>
<div class="m10">However, Bella compensating for all drawbacks by responding to the advances of the Boffins in an engaging way, that easy pair were on the whole well satisfied<p>Our Mutual Friend</p></div>
<div class="m10">The audience were highly amused, Mrs. Porter delighted, the performers embarrassed <p>Sketches by Boz</p></div>
<div class="m10">By this time the audience were perfectly silent, and waited with some anxiety for the resumption of business.<p>The Pickwick Papers</p></div>
<div class="m10">The office-door was closed after them, and the crowd were on the tiptoe of expectation.<p>Sketches by Boz</p></div>
<div class="m10">and the crowd were busy, too, in passing them from thence along the street<p>Barnaby Rudge</p></div>
<div class="m10">and the band was playing, and the constables were swearing, and the twenty committee-men were squabbling, and the mob were shouting<p>Pickwick Papers</p></div>
<div class="m10">before the ricks were blazing and the mob were mad<p>Martin Chuzzlewit</p></div>
<div class="m10">Be this as it may, the boys were recalled from house-window, garden, stable, and cow-yard, and the school were assembled in full conclave, when Mr Squeers, with a small bundle of papers in his hand, and Mrs S. following ...<p>Nicholas Nickleby</p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The eighteenth century</h3>
<h4>the family were</h4>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">and the Nobleman's Family were witnesses that the cure was effected at that very time<p>The reasonableness and certainty of the Christian religion, Robert Jenkin - 1708</p></div>
<div class="m10">This Family were also pretty even with the Bruces, for extirpating them in Scotland<p>A journey through England, John Macky - 1722</p></div>
<div class="m10"> that the Ormonde family were the heirs of Thomas Becket<p>A History of the Life of James Duke of Ormonde, Thomas Carte - 1736</p></div>
<div class="m10">This family were long seated at Willoughby, in the county of Warwick<p>The English Baronetage - 1741</p></div>
<div class="m10">The family were so overjoyed that they arose and welcomed their old guest<p>The Scots Magazine 1795</p></div>
</div>
<h4>the band were</h4>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">upon this the Train'd Bands were order'd into St. George's Fields<p>The History of the Puritans, Daniel Neal 1733</p></div>
<div class="m10">This Honourable Band (the Band of Gentlemen-Pensioners) were first instituted by King Henry the Seventh<p>The true state of England, 1734</p></div>
<div class="m10">The harmless band were seiz'd with sudden fright<p>Hoole's translation of Tasso, The Critical Review 1763</p></div>
<div class="m10">It was one o'clock in the morning of the 13th of September when the little band were crowded into boats<p>Charles Knight's Popular History of England, 1783</p></div>
<div class="m10">The band were all in scarlet uniforms, and were 16 in number<p>The Scots Magazine 1787</p></div>
</div>
<h4>the committee were</h4>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">Upon this Evidence the Committee were of Opinion, That ... <p>A Complete Collection of State-trials, Thomas Salmon, Sollom Emlyn 1730</p></div>
<div class="m10">My Lords, The Committee were well aware, that great Objections would be made to this Kind of Evidence<p>The history and proceedings of the House of Commons, 1742</p></div>
<div class="m10">The Committee were not a little surprised to find, that so short a speech, made, too, in the presence of so many perfons, some of whom were employed, whilst Mr. Twining was sfpeaking, in taking it down, should be so inaccurately written<p>A Narrative of the Conduct of the Tea-dealers 1785</p></div>
<div class="m10">The Speaker answered, that the Committee were, as he The Speaker apprehended, competent to come to any resolutions they thought proper<p>The parliamentary register, 1787</p></div>
<div class="m10">The following Committee were appointed to try the merits of Horne Tooke's petition<p>The Scots Magazine 1791</p></div>
</div>
<h4>the audience were</h4>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">The Audience were very much provoked by the first words of this speech<p>The works of the Right Honourable Joseph Addison, 1721</p></div>
<div class="m10">It is reported of Æschylus, that when his tragedy of the Furies was acted, the audience were so terrify'd that the children fell into fits<p>A note to The Dunciad, translated by Alexander Pope - 1735</p></div>
<div class="m10">and Paul perceiving that the audience were partly Sadduces and partly Pharisees, ...<p>The posthumous works of Mr. Thomas Chubb- 1748</p></div>
<div class="m10">and his audience were always given to understand, by way of application, ...<p>The Critical Review - 1763</p></div>
<div class="m10">Unfortunately, or perhaps fortunately for him, the audience were of a different opinion<p>The European magazine, and London review, Philological Society (Great Britain) - 1799</p></div>
</div>
<h4>the crowd were</h4>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">and the whole Crowd were filled with a deep Consternation and Murmurs<p>Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia ('modernised' version) 1725</p></div>
<div class="m10">0thers say that whilst the crowd were kept at a distance by some Centurions, ...<p>The Lives of the Twelve First Roman Emperors, translated by John Clarke - 1732</p></div>
<div class="m10">A great crowd were gotten together upon the shore; amongst whom was Otoo their king<p>A Voyage towards the South Pole and round the world, James Cook, Tobias Furneaux - 1784</p></div>
<div class="m10">it was not until the dusk of the evening that the busy crowd were persuaded of the approach of a thaw<p>The New Annual Register, Andrew Kippis - 1790</p></div>
<div class="m10">At this judgment from the mouth of a bird, the crowd were filled with astonishment<p>Bahar-danush, translated by Jonathan Scott, 1799</p></div>
</div>
<h4>the mob were</h4>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">That the Force put on the Government by the Rabble, was an Invasion of the Publick Peace $ and that the Mob were the Aggressors<p>A collection of original papers, collected by Daniel Defoe - 1709</p></div>
<div class="m10">Did he run and hide himself, as many would have done upon finding that the Mob were Masters of the Town?<p>The London Magazine and Monthly Chronologer - 1737</p></div>
<div class="m10">He was called to Lincoln's Inn Fields Chapel on the Sunday evening, where the, mob were demolishing the remains of the chapel<p>The Gentleman's Magazine - 1781</p></div>
<div class="m10">Listening only to the voice of gratitude, he flew to the unfortunate Major, whom the enraged mob were dragging along, with a fury that would have intimidated the sloutest heart<p>Walker's Hibernian Magazine - 1790</p></div>
<div class="m10">At this time, the mob were no otherwise mischievous than in refusing to depart<p>The Gentleman's Magazine - 1794</p></div>
</div>
<h4>the company were</h4>
<div class="cite4">
<div class="m10">The Tobacco-Pipe-Makers Company were incorporated by Charter<p>A survey of the cities of London and Westminster, John Stow, John Mottley - 1735</p></div>
<div class="m10"> the old Company were oblig'd to take in additional Subscriptions to the Amount of 744,000 L<p>The History of England, During the Reigns of K. William, Q. Anne, James Ralph - 1746</p></div>
<div class="m10">The disputes raised upon that head, and other political affairs of great importance, so occupied their attention, that the company were not able to gain their great point<p>The Modern Part of an Universal History - 1759</p></div>
<div class="m10">The company were saluted by the militia band of music as they landed at the door<p>Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Review - 1783</p></div>
<div class="m10">The company were prohibited from sending out a greater number of cadets or writers than what were absolutely necessary<p>An Historical and Chronological Déduction of the Origin of Commerce, edited by Adam Anderson, Combe - 1789</p></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Assorted 17th and 18th century examples</h3>
<h4>Families and couples</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>Then the young Couple are set at Table"<span class="normal"> - Adam Olearius and others - 1669</span>
</li>
<li>then all the Family are like to be crushed with the same ruine<span class="normal"> - Jeremy Taylor - 1673</span></li>
<li>The couple are usually prevented from marrying earlier by one or several reasons<span class="normal"> - Hubert McDermott - 1693</span></li>
<li>every time the Family are call'd together to Prayers<span class="normal"> - Thomas Bray - 1697</span></li>
<li>In the mean while the Young Couple are lead to a Room with a fine Bed in it ; where they are shut in, and left to their liberty,<span class="normal"> - Christoph Frick - 1700</span></li>
</ul>
<h4>Companies in legal cases</h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li>That this House will hear the Cause wherein the East India Company are Appellants<span class="normal"> - House of Lords - 1691</span></li>
<li>The preamble also observes that the East-India Company are possessed of and entitled to the Capital Stock of ...<span class="normal"> - Alexander Dalrymple, 1772</span></li>
<li>Moreover, the Bank of England are liable to have Cash demanded of them<span class="normal"> - House of Lords, 1796</span></li>
<li>Cause wherein Richard Hotchkis is Appellant, and the Royal Bank of Scotland are Respondents<span class="normal"> - House of Lords 1796</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Some final thoughts</h3>
<div class="m10">I had expected that perhaps prescriptive grammarians might have been against this usage of plural verbs with collective nouns. Not a bit of it; what concerned them most was the consistent agreement of pronouns.</div>
<div class="m10">The same goes for American grammarians. I was surprised that the difference between British and American English is entirely in usage. The writers of grammar and usage books on both sides of the Atlantic are broadly in agreement.</div>
<div class="m10">I don't think we Brits use plural verbs equally with all types of collective noun. We use them especially with team names and the names of bands, with political parties, and with the words <span class="bQ">family, couple</span>, and <span class="bQ">pair</span>. It seems that for the rest, the media prefer to use singular forms, although in the case of companies etc, the public, and the companies themselves, often seem to prefer to use a plural. </div>
<div class="m10">It seems to me that the use of plural verbs also increases when words like <span class="bQ">whole</span> or <span class="bQ">all</span> are added. This also happens with expressions with <span class="bQ">of</span>. These graphs also seem to suggest, that with <span class="bQ">family</span>, at any rate, movement (in books) seems to be away from using plural verbs. But I'm not convinced that this is the case in spoken and informal written language.</div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=The+family+were%2CThe+family+was&year_start=1700&year_end=2000&corpus=18&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2CThe%20family%20were%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CThe%20family%20was%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=The+whole+family+were%2CThe+whole+family+was&year_start=1700&year_end=2000&corpus=18&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2CThe%20whole%20family%20were%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CThe%20whole%20family%20was%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=The+family+were+all%2CThe+family+was+all&year_start=1700&year_end=2000&corpus=18&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2CThe%20family%20were%20all%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CThe%20family%20was%20all%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<div class="m10"><iframe name="ngram_chart" src="https://books.google.com/ngrams/interactive_chart?content=rest+of+the+family+were%2Crest+of+the+family+was&year_start=1700&year_end=2000&corpus=18&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Crest%20of%20the%20family%20were%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Crest%20of%20the%20family%20was%3B%2Cc0" width=600 height=220 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 hspace=0 vspace=0 frameborder=0 scrolling=no></iframe></div>
<h4>'<em>The government are</em>'</h4>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">Government</span> is one of the words often quoted as taking a plural verb, and Wikipedia even suggest that the plural verb is always used with <span class="bQ">government</span> by the British Civil Service, perhaps to emphasise collective responsibility. But examples with plural verbs are quite difficult to find. Mark Liberman addresses this point in an article at Language Log linked to below. However, he is checking only Hansard, the parliamentary record, where he reckons singular verbs outnumber plural ones by about two to one. In conversation, I think the use of the plural would be rather higher.</div>
</div>
<h3>Links</h3>
<h4>General principles</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv358.shtml">BBC Learning English</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/function/notion.htm">UCL</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/collective-noun">Oxford</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/words/matching-verbs-to-collective-nouns-american">Oxford US</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesis">Wikipedia</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Notional+agreement">Free Dictionary - Notional agreement</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/collective+noun">Free Dictionary - Collective noun</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/collective-noun">Collins</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Fowler, Gowers and Partridge</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.ourcivilisation.com/smartboard/shop/gowerse/complete/chap904.htm">Gowers - Complete Plain Words</a> - The trouble with numbers</li>
<li><a href="http://www.bikwil.com/Vintage41/Collective-Nouns.html">Bikwil - Partridge</a></li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=0osmAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Such+collective+nouns+as+can+be+used+either+in+the+singular+or+in+the+plural%22&dq=%22Such+collective+nouns+as+can+be+used+either+in+the+singular+or+in+the+plural%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=hCdxU-XyH8Ww7AbenIHABQ&redir_esc=y">Usage and Abusage</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Style guides</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.economist.com/styleguide/s#node-21535265">Economist Style Guide</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.theguardian.com/guardian-observer-style-guide-s">Guardian Style Guide</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.bbctraining.com/pdfs/newsStyleGuide.pdf">BBC Style Guide</a></li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=mVcJqKs1isUC&pg=PA164&lpg=PA164&dq=bryan+garner+collective+verbs&source=bl&ots=zuuXpCTeCA&sig=J5qG3sAY3YfWAUTbGehmSklDAEU&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bIh4U4SrM-_Q7AalxoDACg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=bryan%20garner%20collective%20verbs&f=false">Garner's Modern American Usage</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Blogs, discussions etc</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.davidcrystal.com/?id=2829">David Crystal</a></li>
<li><a href="http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2011/09/agreement-over-collective-nouns/">Oxford Blog</a></li>
<li><a href="http://grammarphobia.com/blog/2011/07/subject-verb.html">Grammarphobia</a></li>
<li><a href="http://virtuallinguist.typepad.com/the_virtual_linguist/2010/05/the-government-is-or-the-government-are.html">Virtual Linguist</a></li>
<li><a href="http://alt-usage-english.org/groupnames.html">Alt.Usage</a></li>
<li><a href="http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=877">Language Log - Mark Liberman</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.dailywritingtips.com/are-names-of-sports-teams-and-bands-singular-or-plural/">Daily Writing Tips</a></li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-5124285529420782692014-05-01T11:19:00.000+02:002014-05-01T11:23:38.052+02:00Random thoughts on 'Every little helps'<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">Recently <em>The Guardian</em> published an article on '<em>The Bad Grammar Awards</em>', something guaranteed to bring the peevers out of the woodwork. One commenter wrote <span class="bQ">'What about "every little helps"? That's not grammatical either.'</span></div>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">"Every little helps"</span> is the current slogan of Tescos, Britain's biggest supermarket chain, and no doubt the commenter thought it was just another example of corporations playing free and easy with the English language, like McDonald's famous <span class="bQ">'I'm lovin it'</span> or the daddy of them all - <span class="bQ">'Winston tastes like a cigarette should'</span>. </div>
<div class="m10">Tescos' slogan had never particularly bothered me, perhaps because I had a funny feeling that this expression had been around rather longer than since Tescos started using it.</div>
<div class="m10">Admittedly it's rather difficult to analyse grammatically. Yes, you can have a little, but that's usually considered a pronoun rather than a noun, and you can't have two littles, so can you have every little? I suppose if I'd thought about it I would have seen it as an ellipsis of <span class="bQ">'Every little bit counts'</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">Let's imagine, however, that rather than a modern advertising slogan <span class="bQ">'every little helps'</span> was an old idiom or proverb; would people really be worrying about its grammaticality then, I wonder?</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10"></div>
<div class="m10">Well it's certainly old, as this Ngram graph shows, and has been rather more common in British books than in American ones since the beginning of the twentieth century.</div>
<div class="m10">
<img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNxS4hE3bq-Ja2r8n8aghhCtDIqJs865IBZOL7beANndsKwOmKlIsHfGsbx1d4NpL80MGojN7jRkWPcFN_d63jZfAd8LiMvUctkusJfQb4OAAkZibD8BVCUBEQs47zrPVdJ2eMThEwdTor/s600/EveryLittleHelps.jpg" />
</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>At Google Books</h3>
<div class="m10">Apparently, the <em>Oxford English Dictionary</em> puts the earliest citation as 1791, from John O'Keefe's play, <em>Wild Oats</em>. Here it is from a 1793 edition:</div>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=UOBZAAAAcAAJ&dq=%22every%20little%20helps%22&pg=PA60&ci=177%2C724%2C744%2C303&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=UOBZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA60&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U1HmykcCTlP1MM_t5MLxaUo-DMkfA&ci=177%2C724%2C744%2C303&edge=0" style="max-height"/></a><p><em>Wild Oats</em>, John O'Keeffe, Dublin 1793</p></div>
<div class="m10">But we can do rather better than that. This is from 1742:</div>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=8JtVAAAAcAAJ&dq=%22every%20little%20helps%22&pg=PA44&ci=238%2C333%2C637%2C143&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=8JtVAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA44&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U38f0xYtMoNvOsdoIPKfrwKho8tJA&ci=238%2C333%2C637%2C143&edge=0"/></a><p><em>Some Impartial Thoughts on the Wollen Manufacturies</em>, George Andrew Patrick BRITON (pseud.), London 1742</p></div>
<div class="m10">And from 1751, we have this rather enigmatic entry from <em>The Midwife</em>, a satirical magazine published by Christopher Smart between 1751 and 1753, writing under the pseudonym of Mary Midnight. The key to the enigma will become a bit clearer in a minute:</div>
<div class="cite3"><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=D2AEAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22every%20little%20helps%22&pg=PA193&ci=94%2C1100%2C835%2C89&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=D2AEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA193&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U1UGIQNkr0cW0deJquW7fv6QmMxzA&ci=94%2C1100%2C835%2C89&edge=0"/></a><p><em>The Midwife: or, The Old Woman's Magazine</em>, London 1750</p></div>
<div class="m10">Examples become quite common in late eighteenth century and nineteenth century publications, where it often appears in inverted commas, as if referring to a known idiom or proverb:</div>
<div class="cite3"<a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=pDUoAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22every%20little%20helps%22&pg=PA369&ci=68%2C349%2C847%2C226&source=bookclip"><img src="http://books.google.pl/books?id=pDUoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA369&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U1yAsV07YnkEzmbLYYlj57XRMeGXg&ci=68%2C349%2C847%2C226&edge=0"/></a><p><em>The Spirit of the Public Journals</em>, George Cruikshank, Robert Cruikshank, London 1804</p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Origins and evolution</h3>
<div class="m10">According to <em>The Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins</em>, the expression goes back to a 1590 work by the French writer Gabriel Meurier, and translates as <em>' "Every little helps", said the ant, pissing in the sea.'</em> All I can find for the original is this, which seems to be missing something at the beginning:</div>
<div class="cite4">peu ayde, disçoit le formy, pissant en mer en plein midy <p><em>Deviz Familiers</em>, Gabriel Meurier 1590</p></div>
<div class="m10">Interesting that French has also undergone some spelling changes since those days. The first English version, cited in George Latimer Apperson's <em>The Dictionary of Proverbs</em>, appeared a few years later in a letter from a certain Philip Gawdy to his brother, with the ant replaced by a wren. Gawdy was apparently a bit prudish when it came to using certain words:</div>
<div class="cite4">I have often writt, and sent to you, yet
neuer had any answer, and take it very unkyndly that you writt
it not to me in yowr mans marriage behalfe, bycause the wrenn
sayde all helpte when she ... in the sea. <p><em>Letters</em>, Philip Gawdy, 1602 <a href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924027985260#page/n145/mode/2up/search/marriage">Archive.org</a></p></div>
<div class="m10">Antiquarian and topographer Wiliam Camden had no such qualms:</div>
<div class="cite4">Every thing helpes quoth the wren when she pist i' the sea. <p><em>Remains concerning Britain</em>, William Camden, London 1605/1623 (?) <a href="http://books.google.fr/books?id=56YbAQAAMAAJ&dq=remains%20concerning%20Britain&hl=fr&pg=PA321&ci=71%2C1203%2C748%2C73&source=bookclip">GB 1674</a></p></div>
<div class="m10">As we've seen, by 1750 it had reached its present form. And we now have some idea of what the 'something' the old woman was doing in the sea was:</div>
<div class="cite4">Every little helps (as the old Woman said as she did something in the sea).</div>
<div class="m10">By 1787 the shorter version of the proverb had reached America:</div>
<div class="cite4">A guinea is a guinea, and every little helps <p><em>Belknap Papers</em>, E Hazard 1787, in <em>Early American Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases</em>, Bartlett Jere Whiting <a href="http://books.google.fr/books?id=EuvqPkAq2bkC&pg=PA264&dq=%22A+guinea+is+a+guinea,+and+every+little+helps%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=Y01hU6v5CK-v4QSy-YHoAw&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22A%20guinea%20is%20a%20guinea%2C%20and%20every%20little%20helps%22&f=false">GB</a></p></div>
<div class="m10">And to bring it more a bit more up to date, the <em>Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs</em> quotes this line from a book of short stories featuring Rumpole of the Bailey:</div>
<div class="cite4">'I'll get him to make a few inquiries relative to the bird in question. Every little helps.' <p><em>Rumpole and the Age of Miracles</em> (1989), John Mortimer</p></div>
<div class="m10">It didn't exist only in French and English. In Dutch, the expression - <span class="bQ">alle kleine beetjes helpen</span> (<em>every little bit helps</em>) appears to be quite common, and the Dutch had their own version of the proverb:</div>
<div class="cite4">“Every little helps to lighten the freight,” said the captain, as he threw his wife overboard. <p>(Dutch proverb)</p></div>
<div class="m10">Perhaps that's where they got the idea for <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mtwkDGlpWJk">this CastlemaineXXXX ad</a>.</div>
<div class="m10">And <span class="bQ">every little helps</span> isn't the only expression with this construction:</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>Every little counts</em></h3>
<div class="cite4">Wall, maybe I did make a slip of eight or ten cents, and every little counts," replied the other. <p><em>The king of the sea: a tale of the fearless and free</em>,<br /> Ned Buntline, Boston 1852 <a href="http://books.google.fr/books?id=vaoRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA30&dq=%22Every+little+counts%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=0lFhU7LgEYaJ5ASit4DgCA&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Every%20little%20counts%22&f=false">GB</a></p></div>
<div class="cite4">Sometimes it has been a little music, sometimes a little deeper insight into the history of art ; every little counts you know.<p><em>Washington square. The pension Beaurepas. A bundle of letters</em>, Volume 2,<br />Henry James, 1881 <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=g-oYAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Sometimes+it+has+been+a+little+music,+sometimes+a+little+deeper+insight+into+the+history+of+art+;+every+little+counts+you+know%22&dq=%22Sometimes+it+has+been+a+little+music,+sometimes+a+little+deeper+insight+into+the+history+of+art+;+every+little+counts+you+know%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=4QJiU9aeK-b07Abr6ICQDQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAg">GB</a></p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3><em>Every little makes a mickle</em></h3>
<div class="cite4">A little in one's own pocket, is better than much in another man's purse, 'Tis good to keep a nest-egg. Every little makes a mickle ; while a man gets he never can lose. <p><em>The history of the renowned Don Quixote de la Manha</em>, Volume 3, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Motteux, Ozell, London 1749 <a href="http://books.google.fr/books?id=7KQaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA53&dq=%22Every+little+makes+a+mickle%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=eE5hU-bmCunk4QS1g4CoBg&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22Every%20little%20makes%20a%20mickle%22&f=false">GB</a></p></div>
<div class="cite4">for every counsellor has the impost of a certain quantity of wine every year; which though it be no great matter, yet, according to the old saying, every little makes a mickle.<p><em>The State Letters of Henry, Earl of Clarendon</em>, Oxford 1763<a href="http://books.google.fr/books?id=Kz5kAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA268&dq=%22Every+little+makes+a+mickle%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=eE5hU-bmCunk4QS1g4CoBg&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Every%20little%20makes%20a%20mickle%22&f=false">GB</a></p></div>
<div class="cite4">Also make an investment of any spare moneys as may render some usance to the owner ; because, however little, ' every little makes a mickle, ' as we of the north say, with more reason than rhyme. <p><em>The Works of Lord Byron</em> (from an unpublished letter dated 1823), London 1842</p></div>
<div class="m10">There is also a variation of this - <span class="bQ">'Many a little makes a mickle'</span> </div>
<div class="m10"><span class="bQ">Mickle</span> comes from the Old English <span class="bQ">micel, mycel</span> "great, intense, big, long, much, many," (Online Etymology Dictionary). But in Scotland, <span class="bQ">muckle</span> has taken on the meaning of <span class="bQ">mickle</span>, and <span class="bQ">mickle</span> has taken on the meaning of <span class="bQ">little</span>, to give us the Scottish proverb <span class="bQ">'Mony a mickle makes a muckle'</span>, something similar to <span class="bQ">'A penny saved is a penny earned'</span>. (<a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/many_a_mickle_makes_a_muckle">Wiktionary</a>), (<a href="http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/many-a-little-makes-a-mickle.html">The Phrase Finder</a>)</div>
</div>
<h3>Links</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=J4i3zV4vnBAC&pg=PA156&lpg=PA156&dq=origins+of+%22every+little+helps%22&source=bl&ots=aDAeWLAJvg&sig=_aTMMVwmf_nf4mYiFYQjXpDBRJA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Nb9gU9SeCKqq7Qaa_YFQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=origins%20of%20%22every%20little%20helps%22&f=false">Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins</a>, edited by Julia Cresswell</li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=ogm0c8mYtQUC&pg=PT225&dq=%22pissant+en+mer+en+plein+midy%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ckdhU_nqIYvp4wThxoGIAw&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22pissant%20en%20mer%20en%20plein%20midy%22&f=false">Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs</a>, edited by Jennifer Speake</li>
<li><a href="http://books.google.pl/books?id=7PMZJqSR4sAC&pg=PA178&dq=%22The+wrenn+sayde+all+helpte+when+she%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=A0VhU57nGMLR7AaklYDgDQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20wrenn%20sayde%20all%20helpte%20when%20she%22&f=false">Dictionary of Proverbs, George Latimer Apperson 1993</a></li>
<li><a href="http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=749#comment-650023">Language Log</a> - Goeffrey K Pullum</li>
<li><a href="http://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/apr/28/bad-grammar-award-shortlist-english-language-nhs-tesco">The Guardian</a> - 'Bad Grammar award reveals shortlist of English language offenders'</li>
<li><a href="http://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/sep/04/mondaymediasection.advertising">The Guardian</a> - article praising Tescos' slogan</li>
</ul>
<h4>Wikipedia</h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Camden">William Camden</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_O%27Keeffe_%28Irish_writer%29">John O'Keefe</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Smart">Christopher Smart</a></li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-42190479738512514002014-04-27T12:33:00.000+02:002014-05-01T18:04:18.235+02:00Exploring spelling and pronunciation, Part 1<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Complex, yes. But impossible?</h3>
<div class="m10">The complexity of English spelling undoubtedly poses problems for both foreign learners and native speakers.</div>
<div class="m10">While some languages, like Spanish for example, have a clear relationship between spelling and sound, this is not always the case with English. Where Spanish has more or less one letter for each sound, English can use anywhere between one and four - let's take the sound <span class="ipa">/u:/</span>, it can be expressed with one letter - <span class="bQ">wh<span class="ul">o</span></span>, with two letters - <span class="bQ">t<span class="ul">oo</span></span>, with three letters - <span class="bQ">H<span class="ul">ugh</span></span>, and with four letters - <span class="bQ">thr<span class="ul">ough</span></span>.</div>
<div class="m10">And in English, the same letter can have several different sounds, for example <span class="bQ">a</span> in - <span class="bQ">can, cane, car, care</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">Because many of the most commonly used words in English have apparently irregular spelling, it can sometimes look as though English has no spelling rules at all. It has been estimated, however, that roughly 80% of words follow regular patterns, and that's what I want to explore in this series of posts, as well as looking at some of the main irregularities.</div>
<div class="m10">In this first post, I'll be looking at the sounds represented by one vowel in simple one-syllable words.</div>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Why is English spelling so complex?</h3>
<div class="m10">There are three main reasons for the complexity of English spelling</div>
<h4>1. Diversity of roots</h4>
<div class="m10">English is somewhat of a mongrel language, borrowing from everywhere:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="normal">It started off with a group of Germanic dialects coming together to form Anglo-Saxon (often referred to as Old English) between the fifth and ninth centuries AD.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Then from 1066, England was taken over by French-speaking Normans. At first, this reduced the importance of English, with French being the language of the elite.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Around 1200, the Norman elite lost most of their lands in France, and started to speak English themselves, but bringing a lot of Norman French (Anglo-Norman) words with them. Meanwhile, Latin remained the language of the Church and of official documents. Many educated people of the period were trilingual, speaking what was now Middle English, French and Latin.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">During the fourteenth century, English started to regain its importance in public life, and at the same time the Frenchh of Paris (rather than that of Normandy) became fashionable, and an even larger group of French words were accepted into English.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">In the following two centuries, as part of the Renaissance, English intellectuals took an enormous interest in Latin and Greek, introducing thousands of Latin and Greek words into English, often keeping something very close to their original spelling.</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">And more recently, English has borrowed words from just about every culture it has come into contact with. While many languages adapt the spelling of these loan words to their own spelling systems, English often keeps the spelling of the original language.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">According to Wikipedia, words of French (or Norman) derivation account for anywhere between 28% and 41% of English words, Germanic languages (Anglo-Saxon and Norse) between 25% and 33%, with Latin accounting for between 15% and 28%, and Greek around 5%. But it's also true that we get our grammar and our most commonly used words from Anglo-Saxon. </div>
<h4>2. The Great Vowel Shift</h4>
<div class="m10">Between about 1400 and 1700, something strange happened, and nobody is quite sure why. The way many vowel sounds were pronounced changed. It was a gradual process, but one that some people even noticed at the time. This has happened in other countries, but apparently not to the same extent as in Britain.</div>
<div class="m10">By this time, however, spelling was becoming increasingly standardised, and it didn't change to reflect the new sounds.</div>
<h4>3. Some spelling is based more on grammar than sound.</h4>
<div class="m10">Some spelling reflects the grammatical function of a word rather than its sound. Two of the more obvious examples of these are Past simple <span class="bQ">-ed</span> and and the letter <span class="bQ">s</span> in Third person singular.</div>
<div class="m10">Every EFL student knows that Past simple <span class="bQ">-ed</span> has three possible pronunciations: <span class="ipa">/d/</span> - <span class="bQ">liv<span class="ul">ed</span></span>, <span class="ipa">/t/</span> - <span class="bQ">walk<span class="ul">ed</span></span>, and <span class="ipa">/ɪd/</span> - <span class="bQ">shout<span class="ul">ed</span></span>. Three different sounds represented by one spelling convention.</div>
<div class="m10">Something similar happens with <span class="bQ">s</span> in Third person plural. It can be soft <span class="bQ">/s/</span> - <span class="bQ">works</span>, or hard <span class="bQ">/z/</span> - <span class="bQ">plays</span>, depending on the previous letter(s). But we spell both the same.</div>
<div class="m10">Finally, in some word families, we keep the spelling of the common root although the sound might change - compare the <span class="bQ">s</span> sound in <span class="bQ">television</span> - <span class="ipa">/ʒ/</span>, and <span class="bQ">televise</span> <span class="ipa">/z/</span>. </div>
<div class="m10">These conventions are often useful when determining a word's grammatical function.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Vowel sounds in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)</h3>
<div class="m10">Standard British English uses twenty vowel sounds, seven short vowels, five long vowels, and eight diphthongs:</div>
<table class="ipaTable" style="margin:20px 0;">
<tr class="instr"><td style="width:200px;">short vowels</td><td>long vowels</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="sh" title="230"><span class="ipa">æ</span> - c<span class="eg">a</span>t</td>
<td class="lg" title="593"><span class="ipa">ɑ:</span> - c<span class="eg">a</span>r</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sh" title="e"><span class="ipa">e</span> - <span class="eg">e</span>gg</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<td class="sh" title="618"><span class="ipa">ɪ</span> - f<span class="eg">i</span>sh</td>
<td class="lg" title="618"><span class="ipa">ɪ:</span> - tr<span class="eg">ee</span></td>
<tr>
<td class="sh" title="594"><span class="ipa">ɒ</span> - cl<span class="eg">o</span>ck</td>
<td class="lg" title="596"><span class="ipa">ɔ:</span> - h<span class="eg">or</span>se</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sh" title="652"><span class="ipa">ʌ</span> - <span class="eg">u</span>p</td><td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="sh" title="650"><span class="ipa">ʊ</span> - b<span class="eg">u</span>ll</td>
<td class="lg" title="u"><span class="ipa">u:</span> - b<span class="eg">oo</span>t</td></tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="sh" title="601"><span class="ipa">ə</span> - comput<span class="eg">er</span></td>
<td class="lg" title="604"><span class="ipa">ɜ:</span> - b<span class="eg">ir</span>d</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h4><span class="instr">diphthongs</span></h4>
<table class="ipaTable" id="dipthongs">
<tr>
<td style="width:120px" title="e, 618"><span class="ipa">eɪ</span> - tr<span class="eg">ai</span>n</td>
<td style="width:120px" title="601, 650"><span class="ipa">əʊ</span> - ph<span class="eg">o</span>ne</td>
<td style="width:120px" title="a, 618"><span class="ipa">aɪ</span> - b<span class="eg">i</span>ke</td>
<td style="width:120px" title="a, 650"><span class="ipa">aʊ</span> - <span class="eg">ow</span>l</td></tr>
<tr>
<td title="596, 618"><span class="ipa">ɔɪ</span> - b<span class="eg">oy</span></td>
<td title="618, 601"><span class="ipa">ɪə:</span> - <span class="eg">ear</span></td>
<td title="e, 601"><span class="ipa">eə</span> - ch<span class="eg">air</span></td>
<td title="650, 601"><span class="ipa">ʊə</span> - t<span class="eg">ou</span>r</td></tr>
</table>
<div class="m10">You can hear the individual sounds at <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/pron/sounds/chart.shtml" target="_blank">BBC Learning English</a></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The structure of one syllable words</h3>
<div class="m10">In this post I'm going to be looking at one syllable words with a single vowel. One syllable words follow one of three patterns:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="instr">V-C</span> <span class="normal"> - vowel + consonant - </span>am, on</li>
<li><span class="instr">C-V-C</span> <span class="normal"> - consonant + vowel + consonant - </span>cat, dog, sun</li>
<li><span class="instr">C-V</span> <span class="normal"> - consonant + vowel - </span>be, go</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">The consonant components can consist of more than one consonant, for example we can have <span class="bQ">bed</span>, but also <span class="bQ">bred</span>; <span class="bQ">had</span>, but also <span class="bQ">hard</span>. These consonant clusters can sometimes influence the pronunciation of the vowel before or after them, but I'll be looking at that more closely in a later post.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Short vowels - consonant + vowel + consonant</h3>
<div class="m10">There are seven short vowel sounds - five of them - <span class="ipa">/æ/</span>, <span class="ipa">/e/</span>, <span class="ipa">/ɪ/</span>, <span class="ipa">/ɒ/</span>, <span class="ipa">/ʌ/</span> - give us the basic vowel sounds generally used for one syllable words consisting of <span class="instr">C-V-C</span> and ending in:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="normal">Single consonants - </span><span class="bQ">b,d,g,m,n,p,s,t,x</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Some double consonants - </span> <span class="bQ">ck, nd, ng, sh</span></li>
<li><span class="normal">Some double consonants (but not after <span class="bQ">a</span> or <span class="bQ">o</span>) - </span><span class="bQ">ld, st</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Stressed first syllables of longer words also often have the short vowel sound</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="instr">a</span> <span class="normal"> - </span> <span class="ipa">/æ/</span><br />
am, as<br />
cab, bad, sag, ham, can, lap, has, hat, tax<br />
ba<span class="ul">ck</span>, ca<span class="ul">sh</span>, ha<span class="ul">ng</span>, sa<span class="ul">nd</span>, <br />
camera, manager</li>
<li><span class="instr">e</span> <span class="normal"> - </span> <span class="ipa">/e/</span><br />
ex<br />
bed, beg, hen, bet, sex<br />
be<span class="ul">st</span>, se<span class="ul">nd</span><br />
general, dressing</li>
<li><span class="instr">i</span> <span class="normal"> - </span> <span class="ipa">/ɪ/</span><br />
if, it<br />
bid, gig, him, sin, tip, his, pit<br />
li<span class="ul">ft</span>, fi<span class="ul">sh</span>, mi<span class="ul">ss</span>, ri<span class="ul">ng</span>, si<span class="ul">lk</span><br />
history, sister</li>
<li><span class="instr">o</span> <span class="normal"> - </span> <span class="ipa">/ɒ/</span><br />
go, so <span class="normal">(but NB exception - <span class="bQ">do</span>)</span><br />
cod, log, hop, dot, box<br />
lo<span class="ul">ft</span>, so<span class="ul">ck</span>, so<span class="ul">ng</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">u</span> <span class="normal"> - </span> <span class="ipa">/ʌ/</span><br />
up, us<br />
rub, bud, hug, sum, run, cup, but<br />
bu<span class="ul">ck</span>, hu<span class="ul">ff</span>, ru<span class="ul">st</span>
<br />
customer</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">The other two short vowel sounds are:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ipa">/ʊ/</span> <span class="normal">- there's usually a slight difference in pronunciation depending on whether it is followed by <span class="bQ">t</span> or <span class="bQ">l(l)</span>, but the same symbol is used for both.</span><br />
put, bull, full, pull<br />
foot, soot, wool</li>
<li><span class="ipa">/ə/</span><span class="normal">, known as the schwa, which is the sound we use for unstressed vowels, and which we will look at a bit later.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - Short vowels are not usually found in those syllables ending in <span class="bQ10">r, w</span> or <span class="bQ10">y</span>), which we will look at in a moment. </div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Variation 1: consonant + vowel + consonant + <em>e</em></h3>
<div class="m10">Now look what happens when we add <span class="bQ">e, er, ed</span> or <span class="bQ">ing</span> to these simple consonant + vowel + consonant words. The short vowel sound turns into a diphthong, or in the case of <span class="bQ10">u</span>, into a long vowel preceded by <span class="ipa">/j/</span>:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="instr">a</span> <span class="ipa">/eɪ/</span><br />
cane, hate, gape<br />
range</li>
<li><span class="instr">e</span> <span class="ipa">/ɪ:/</span><br />
cede, gene, mete</li>
<li><span class="instr">i</span> <span class="ipa">/aɪ/</span><br />
bite, line</li>
<li><span class="instr">o</span> <span class="ipa">/əʊ/</span><br />
hope, code</li>
<li><span class="instr">u</span> <span class="ipa">/ju:/</span><br />
fume, lure, pure, tube</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note 1</span> - There are very few words with <span class="bQ">e</span> that fit this pattern:</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note 2 <em>-ve</em></span> - Words never end in <span class="bQ">v</span>, which needs to be followed by <span class="bQ">e</span>. There is no clear pattern: a couple of words ending in <span class="bQ">-ave</span> and <span class="bQ">-ive</span> keep the short vowel sound - <span class="bQ">have, give, live</span>, others change - <span class="bQ">gave, wave, five, hive</span>. One syllable words ending in <span class="bQ">-ove</span> have several different pronunciations: <span class="ipa">/əʊv/</span> - cove, wove, <span class="ipa">/ʌv/</span> - dove, love, <span class="ipa">/u:v/</span> - <span class="bQ">move</span></div>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note 3</span> - When <span class="bQ">-ing</span> forms are derived from words ending in <span class="bQ">e</span>, the <span class="bQ">e</span> is usually dropped.</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note 4</span> - If we want to keep the short vowel sound before <span class="bQ">-ing</span> or <span class="bQ">-e</span>, we usually need to double the consonant:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>canning, gapped</li>
<li>better</li>
<li>bitten, </li>
<li>sodden</li>
<li>supper</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Variation 2: vowel + consonant + <em>e</em></h3>
<div class="m10">There are a few words consisting of <span class="instr">V-C</span> syllables + <span class="bQ">e</span> where the same thing happens, but to a lesser extent, and with quite a few exceptions. </div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="instr">a</span> <span class="ipa">/eɪ/</span><br />
age, ale, ape <span class="normal">(but exceptions - <span class="bQ">are, awe, axe</span>)</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">e</span> <span class="ipa">/ɪ:/</span><br />
eve <span class="normal">(but mainly exceptions - <span class="bQ">ewe, eye</span>)</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">i</span> <span class="ipa">/aɪ/</span><br />
ice, ire</li>
<li><span class="instr">o</span> <span class="ipa">/əʊ/</span><br />
ode, owe <span class="normal">(but exceptions - <span class="bQ">one, ore</span>)</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">u</span> <span class="ipa">/ju:/</span><br />
use</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Long vowels 1: consonant + vowel + <em>r</em> (+)</h3>
<div class="m10">Following the vowel with <span class="bQ">r</span> also changes the sound of the vowel, giving us the long vowel sounds <span class="ipa">ɑ:</span>, <span class="ipa">ɜ:</span> and <span class="ipa">ɔ:</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="instr">a</span> <span class="normal"> - </span><span class="ipa">/ɑ:(r)/</span><br />
car, star, far<br />
bark, dart, hard<br />
<span class="normal">(exceptions: <span class="ipa">/ɔ:(r)/</span> <span class="bQ">ward, warm, warn</span>)</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">e</span> <span class="normal"> - </span><span class="ipa">/ɜ:(r)/</span><br />
her<br />
fern, herb, nerd</li>
<li><span class="instr">i</span> <span class="normal"> - </span><span class="ipa">/ɜ:(r)/</span><br />
fir, sir<br />
bird, firm , girl</li>
<li><span class="instr">o</span> <span class="normal"> - </span><span class="ipa">/ɔ:(r)/</span><br />
for<br />
fore, horse, store</li>
<li><span class="instr">u</span> <span class="normal"> - </span><span class="ipa">/ɜ:(r)/</span><br />
fur<br />
burn, hurt, purr, surf</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Variation: consonant + vowel + <span class="bQ">r</span> + <em>e / ing</em></h3>
<div class="m10">And as with other <span class="instr">C-V-C</span> syllables, adding <span class="bQ">e</span> alters the sound, but in a different way again.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="instr">a</span> <span class="normal"> - </span><span class="ipa">/eə(r)/</span><br />
care, stare, fare<br />
caring, staring, faring</li>
<li><span class="instr">e</span> <span class="normal"> - </span><span class="ipa">/ɪə(r)/</span><br />
here, mere<br />
<span class="normal">(exception <span class="ipa">/ɜ:(r)/</span> <span class="bQ">were</span>)</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">i</span> <span class="normal"> - </span><span class="ipa">/aɪə(r)/</span><br />
fire, sire<br />
firing, siring</li>
<li><span class="instr">o</span> <span class="normal"> - </span><span class="ipa">/ɔ:(r)/</span><br />
fore, sore<br />
bored, soring
</li>
<li><span class="instr">u</span> <span class="normal"> - </span><span class="ipa">/jʊə(r)/</span><br />
cure, pure<br />
during, purer<br />
<span class="normal">(exception <span class="ipa">/ʊə(r)/</span> <span class="bQ">sure, surer</span>)</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Long vowels 2: consonant + <em>a</em> + certain two consonant clusters</h3>
<div class="m10">In the case of <span class="bQ">a</span>, many double consonant combinations also have the effect of lengthening the vowel.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="instr">a</span> <span class="normal"> - </span><span class="ipa">/ɑ:/</span><br />
bath, calm, can't, fast, hard, tart<br />
father</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Some of these, for example <span class="bQ">bath</span> and <span class="bQ">can't</span>, apply particularly to Standard British English, but not to American English, or to some regions of Britain.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Variation: consonant + <em>a</em> + certain two consonant clusters + <em>e</em></h3>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="instr">a</span> <span class="normal"> - </span><span class="ipa">/eɪ/</span><br />
bathe, haste</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Long vowels 3: <span class="ipa">/ɪ:/</span> and <span class="ipa">/u:/</span></h3>
<div class="m10">There are two other long vowel sounds, which are usually represented by two vowel clusters:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="ipa">/ɪ:/</span><br />
feet, seat, tree</li>
<li><span class="ipa">u:</span><br />
food, boot, soup, suit</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">I'll be looking at vowel clusters in a later post.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>The letter <em>y</em> as a vowel</h3>
<div class="m10">For consonant + vowel + consonant + <span class="bQ">y</span>, see next section</div>
<div class="m10">At the beginning of a syllable, the letter <span class="bQ">y</span> is a consonant - <span class="ipa">/j/</span> - <span class="bQ">yacht, yellow, yes</span>. In the middle and at the end of a syllable, <span class="bQ">y</span> functions as a vowel, behaving similarly to the letter <span class="bQ">i</span>.</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="normal"><span class="instr">C</span> + <span class="bQ">y</span> + <span class="instr">C</span> - <span class="ipa">/ɪ/</span> - </span>gym</li>
<li><span class="normal"><span class="instr">C</span> + <span class="bQ">y</span> + <span class="instr">C</span> + <span class="bQ">e</span> - <span class="ipa">/aɪ/</span> - </span>hype, type</li>
<li><span class="normal"><span class="instr">C</span> + <span class="bQ">y</span> + <span class="bQ">r</span> + <span class="bQ">e</span> - <span class="ipa">/aɪə(r)/</span> - </span>byre, tyre</li>
<li><span class="normal"><span class="instr">C</span> + <span class="bQ">y</span> + <span class="bQ">e</span> - <span class="ipa">/aɪ/</span> - </span - </span>bye, dye, eye</li>
<li><span class="normal"><span class="instr">C</span> + <span class="bQ">y</span> - <span class="ipa">/aɪ/</span> - </span - </span>by, my, sty, try</li>
</ul>
<h4>Consonant + vowel + <em>y</em></h4>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="instr">a</span> <span class="normal">-</span> <span class="ipa">/eɪ/</span> -
day, hay, stay</li>
<li><span class="instr">e</span> <span class="normal">-</span> <span class="ipa">/eɪ/</span> - hey, <span class="ipa">/ɪ:/</span> - key</li>
<li><span class="instr">o</span> <span class="normal">-</span> <span class="ipa">/ɔɪ/</span> -
boy, toy</li>
<li><span class="instr">u</span> <span class="normal">-</span> <span class="ipa">/aɪ/</span> -
buy, guy</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note</span> - the sounds <span class="ipa">/ɪ/</span> and <span class="ipa">/ɪ:/</span> at the end of a word are always spelt with <span class="bQ">y</span>, not <span class="bQ">i</span>.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Syllables ending in <em>w</em> </h3>
<div class="m10">Syllables ending in <span class="bQ">w</span> don't follow the short vowel pattern:</div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="instr">a</span> <span class="normal">-</span> <span class="ipa">/ɔ:/</span><br />
law, paw, saw</li>
<li><span class="instr">e</span> <span class="normal">-</span> <span class="ipa">/ju:/</span><br />
few, new, pew<br />
<span class="normal">(exception - <span class="ipa">/əʊ/</span> - <span class="bQ">sew</span>)</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">o</span> <span class="normal">-</span> <span class="ipa">/aʊ/</span><br />
cow, now, row<br />
<span class="normal"> - </span> <span class="ipa">/əʊ/</span><br />
<span class="bQ">low, mow, row, tow</span>
</li>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Basic vowel patterns</h3>
<ul class="bQ">
<li><span class="instr">V-C</span><span class="normal"> = vowel + consonant</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">C-V-C</span> <span class="normal">= consonant + vowel + consonant</span></li>
<li><span class="instr">C-V</span><span class="normal"> = consonant + vowel</span></li>
</ul>
<table class="grammarTable" style="margin:10px auto;">
<tr style="text-align:center"><td></td><td></td><td class="instr">V-C</td><td><span class="instr">C-V-C</span></td><td></td><td colspan="2"><span class="instr">C-V-C</span> + <span class="bQ">e/ing</span></td><td colspan="2"><span class="instr">C-V</span> + <span class="bQ">r</span></td><td></td><td colspan="2"><span class="instr">C-V</span> + <span class="bQ">re/ring</span></td><td colspan="2"><span class="instr">C-V</span></td></tr>
<tr class="bQ"><td><span class="instr">a</span></td><td><span class="ipa">æ</span></td><td>am, as</td><td>can</td><td class="instr" style="text-align:center;">></td><td><span class="ipa">eɪ</span></td><td>cane</td><td><span class="ipa">ɑ:(r)</span></td><td>car</td><td class="instr" style="text-align:center;">></td><td><span class="ipa">eə(r)</span></td><td>care</td><td><span class="ipa">ɑ:</span></td><td>ma, pa</td></tr>
<tr class="bQ"><td><span class="instr">e</span></td><td><span class="ipa">e</span></td><td>ex</td><td>hen</td><td class="instr" style="text-align:center;">></td><td><span class="ipa">ɪ:</span></td><td>gene</td><td><span class="ipa">ɜ:(r)</span></td><td>her</td><td class="instr" style="text-align:center;">></td><td><span class="ipa">ɪə(r)</span></td><td>here</td><td><span class="ipa">ɪ:</span></td><td>be, we</td></tr>
<tr class="bQ"><td><span class="instr">i</span></td><td><span class="ipa">ɪ</span></td><td>if, it</td><td>bit</td><td class="instr" style="text-align:center;">></td><td><span class="ipa">aɪ</span></td><td>bite</td><td><span class="ipa">ɜ:(r)</span></td><td>sir</td><td class="instr" style="text-align:center;">></td><td><span class="ipa">aɪə(r)</span></td><td>hire</td><td><span class="ipa">aɪ</span></td><td>hi, pi</td></tr>
<tr class="bQ"><td><span class="instr">o</span></td><td><span class="ipa">ɒ</span></td><td>of, on</td><td>hop</td><td class="instr" style="text-align:center;">></td><td><span class="ipa">əʊ</span></td><td>hope</td><td><span class="ipa">ɔ:(r)</span></td><td>for</td><td></td><td></td><td>sore</td><td><span class="ipa">əʊ</span></td><td>go, so</td></tr>
<tr class="bQ"><td><span class="instr">u</span></td><td><span class="ipa">ʌ</span></td><td>up, us</td><td>tub</td><td class="instr" style="text-align:center;">></td><td><span class="ipa">ju:</span></td><td>tube</td><td><span class="ipa">ɜ:(r)</span></td><td>fur</td><td class="instr" style="text-align:center;">></td><td><span class="ipa">jʊə(r)</span></td><td>cure</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
</table>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note 1:</span> - some main exceptions - <span class="bQ">put, pull, do</span></div>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note 2:</span> - the letters <span class="bQ">a</span> and <span class="bQ">o</span> are also lengthened to <span class="ipa">ɑ:</span> and <span class="ipa">əʊ:</span> when followed by certain consonant clusters, eg <span class="bQ">bath, fast</span> and <span class="bQ">cold, bolt</span></div>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note 3:</span> - syllables ending in <span class="bQ">w</span> and <span class="bQ">y</span> are exceptions to this principle.</div>
<div class="m10"><span class="instr">Note 4:</span> - the lengthened sounds produced by adding <span class="bQ">e</span> give us the pronunciation of the vowels themselves - <span class="instr">A, E, I, O, U</span> = <span class="ipa">eɪ</span>, <span class="ipa">ɪ:</span>, <span class="ipa">aɪ</span>, <span class="ipa">əʊ</span>, <span class="ipa">ju:</span>. These are also often called long vowels, and are shown in American dictionaries and some websites with a line over them - <span class="ipa">ā, ē, ī, ō, ū</span> </div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Summary</h3>
<div class="m10">We can now see the basic principle behind the different pronunciation of the letter <span class="bQ">a</span> in<span class="bQ"> can, cane, car, care</span>. </div>
<ul class="bQ10">
<li><span class="normal">basic short vowel - <span class="ipa">/æ/</span> - </span>can</li>
<li><span class="normal">vowel lengthened into a diphthong by adding <span class="bQ">e</span> - <span class="ipa">/eɪ/</span> - </span>cane</li>
<li><span class="normal">long vowel when followed by <span class="bQ">r</span> - <span class="ipa">/ɑ:/</span> - </span>car</li>
<li><span class="normal">which is itself lengthened into a different diphthong when followed by <span class="bQ">e</span> - <span class="ipa">/eə/</span> - </span>care</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">And the same thing happens, to a greater or lesser extent, with the other four vowels.</div>
<div class="m10">In the next post in this series, I want to look at the effect of consonant clusters before and after the vowel, and what happens when we have two vowels together in a <span class="instr">C-V-C</span> one syllable word.</div>
</div>
<h3>Related links</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/p/sounds-ipa.html">Sound (IP)</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2012/09/pronunciation-game-using-ipa-symbols.html">Pronunciation game using the IPA</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2012/09/web-tools-ipa-code-generator.html">IPA code generator</a></li>
</ul>Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4167585665865020265.post-62346668103916715462014-04-22T23:07:00.001+02:002014-04-22T23:07:16.062+02:00A strange example of negative inversion<style type="text/css">
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<div class="exDiv">
<div class="m10">I've just spotted a rather strange example of negative inversion in today's <em>Guardian</em>. Commenting on the fact that Google Maps Russia now shows Crimea as part of Russia, the writer says:</div>
<div class="cite4">
<center><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVmRYHjEd6voCeXHyWLVLVHQIEQIsWskM8_JAYXux-ucCZtKv2PbTWXJfBhqZMkz8GRFqSVpSFp7pfUmFhjKwzfofzl0ceq7Q6Pn54lHcVVLlfX_9sDvfoakwxFR0fo5qZokvn1CfLeZ7J/s400/StrangeInversion.jpg" /></center>
<p><a href="http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/apr/22/google-maps-russia-crimea-federation">the Guardian</a></p></div>
<div class="m10">The bit we're interested in is this:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>In no uncertain terms is the area marked as a separate country from wider Ukraine.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Negative inversion</h3>
<div class="m10">This is an example of negative inversion. We sometimes use inversion with negative or limiting adverbs to shift the emphasis onto the negative adverb or for dramatic effect.</div>
<div class="m10">Negative inversion involves putting the adverb or adverbial phrase to the beginning of the sentence and swapping the positions of the subject and the auxiliary verb. Here are some examples of standard sentences with their negative adverb (or negative expression) underlined, followed by their inverted versions:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10">I have <span class="ul">never</span> heard such nonsense <span class="ul">in all my life</span>.<br />
Never in all my life have I heard such nonsense.</li>
<li class="m10">We had <span class="ul">hardly</span> entered the room, when the lights went out.<br />
Hardly had we entered the room when the lights went out</li>
<li class="m10">He <span class="ul">little</span> realised the danger that he faced.<br />
Little did he realise the danger that he faced.</li>
<li class="m10">I found out <span class="ul">only then</span> that that she was cheating me.<br />
Only then did I found out that she was cheating on me.</li>
<li>There is <span class="ul">no way</span> I'm going to aplogise to him.<br />
No way am I going to apologise to him.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>So what's my problem with the Guardian example?</h3>
<h4>Part 1 - <em>In no uncertain terms</em></h4>
<div class="m10">The expression <span class="bQ">in no uncertain terms</span> is one of the few occasions when we can use a double negative in Standard English - and we do it to emphasise a positive, as in:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>She told him what she thought of him, in no uncertain terms.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">In other words, she told him exactly what she thought of him, directly and without mincing her words. We could also put the adverbial to the front, without inversion.</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>In no uncertain terms, she told him what she thought of him.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Part 2 - Confounding expectations</h4>
<div class="m10">But it would be very odd (if not downright senseless) to invert it:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>In no uncertain terms did she tell him what she thought of him.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Why? Because as soon as we see a negative adverb or adverbial at the beginning of a sentence followed by an inversion, this sets us up to expect a very strong negative; that's the whole point of negative inversion. So when it turns out to be positive, we are left somewhat confused, as I was with the Guardian example.</div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Misnegation</h3>
<div class="m10">The linguistics blog Language Log has published a series of posts investigating cases where people get confused when using negatives with expressions such as <span class="bQ">underestimate</span>. An example might go like this:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>The amount of damage caused by the tsunami cannot be underestimated.</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">What the speaker really means is that it is impossible to <span class="ul">overestimate</span> the amount of damage, not underestimate it. In other words, the amount of damage is so high, that no figure you come up with is likely to be higher than the the actual one.</div>
<div class="m10">One of the regulars at Language Log, Linguistics professor Mark Liberman, calls this<span class=" bQ">'the miracle of misnegation'</span>.</div>
<div class="m10">He reckons that something similar is happening with <span class="bQ">in no uncertain</span>, and that when <span class="bQ">no uncertain</span> is used in negative inversion structures, it's often intended to have a negative meaning, and he quotes a woman as saying:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>I am 25 wks pregnant now and I have told my partner in no uncertain terms do I want another one that close!!</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">To put it another way, what she really meant was:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li>I am 25 wks pregnant now and I have told my partner <span class="ul">that no way</span> do I want another one that close!!</li>
</ul>
<div class="m10">Ngram comes up with no hits for <span class="bQ">in no uncertain terms did</span>, but looking in Google Books I found this, which, in line with what Mark Liberman was saying, seems to have a negative rather than a double positive meaning - he didn't care:</div>
<div class="cite4">a hungry kiss that told her in no uncertain terms did he care that she was his boss<p>Mail Order Cowboy - Pamela Bauer</p></div>
</div>
<div class="exDiv">
<h3>Back to that map</h3>
<div class="m10">But that's certainly not what's happening in the Guardian example: there's nothing negative about it. Which is why it seems odd to me in a negative inversion structure. Better would have simply been:</div>
<ul class="bQ">
<li class="m10">The area is marked as a separate country from wider Ukraine in no uncertain terms.<br />
</li>
<li class="m10" style="list-style:none;"><span class="normal">or starting with the negative adverbial, but without inversion:</span></li>
<li class="m10">In no uncertain terms, the area is marked as a separate country from wider Ukraine</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Related posts</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/05/negative-inversion-practice-exercises.html">Making sense of negative inversion. Hopefully.</a></li>
<li><a href="http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/2011/05/negative-inversion-practice-exercises.html">Negative inversion - practice exercises</a></li>
</ul>
<h3>Links</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=2923">The second life of "In no uncertain terms"</a> Mark Liberman, Language Log</li>
<li><a href="http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=807">Electoral overnegation</a> Mark Liberman, Language Log</li>
</ul>
Warsaw Willhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15373568589613033674noreply@blogger.com3