- Introduction to modal verbs and some similar verbal expressions
- Modal verbs listed by function
- Modals listed by verb
Contents
1. Introduction
The modal auxiliaries back to Contents
- can, could
- shall, should
- will, would
- may, might
- must
- ought to
Characteristics of modal verbs back to Contents
- they form their negatives with not or -n't
He can't come till later.
In fact he might not come at all. - they have inverted question forms
Could you do something for me?
Will you give this to Peter? - they can be used in short forms, short answers and tag questions:
I'm not coming, but Sam might. (short forms)
Who can tell me the answer? - I can. (short answers)
You won't forget, will you?. (tag questions - they can be stressed for emphasis
But I can swim, honest.
- they're used with the bare infinitive (but see next section on aspect)
- they don't use do /does / did for negative or question forms (see above)
- they have the same form for all persons (no 3rd person singular s)
- they don't have different tense forms (but they can have different aspects - see next section). In their base form, they can often refer to the future as well as the present.
Modal verbs can have aspect back to Contents
- simple - He may be in the kitchen
- continuous - He might be making the lunch
- perfect - He could have finished by now.
- perfect continuous - He really should have been serving it out by now
Modal functions usually have two time references
- present and future - these are formed with the base form of the modal verb:
I can do it now
I could do it tomorrow
You should phone him now
He might be out of town tomorrow. - past - these are sometimes formed with a related modal, a modal perfect or a different verb altogether:
She could swim almost before she could walk
She must have been a quick learner
She had to learn quickly
Overlap and double meanings
- Have you seen Judy? Have you tried her office, she should be here by now.
(expectation / probability) - Why in earth isn't Judy here. She should be here by now.
(obligation - it's her duty)
Semi-modals plus back to Contents
- need
- dare
- used to
- have (got) to
Semi-auxiliaries
- be going to
- be to
- be supposed / meant to
- be willing to
- be + adjective + to
- be bound to
- be sure / certain to
- be likely to
- be due to
- be set to
- had better
2. Functions of modal verbs
Abilityback to Contents
actual ability - present
can / be able to - ability in the present
She can sing really well.
She's able to dress herself now.can - ability right now (more common than able to)
Look! I can swim!
potential ability - present and future
can / could - potential ability
I can / could do now if you like.can / could - ability in the future (when we decide now)
I can / could do it next week.be able to - future ability
Will you be able to come to our party?
lack of ability - present and future
cannot - negative ability in the present and in future
He can't swim at all.
She can't come next weekend after all.not be able to - negative ability in the present
I'm not able to help you, I'm afraidnot be able to - negative ability in the future
They won't be able to deliver before Thursday
actual ability - past
could / be able to - general ability in the past
He could speak French like a native
Could you ride a bicycle at that age?
I was able to read before I went to primary school.
She used to be able to juggle rather well.could - ability in the past on a specific occasion before see, hear, taste, feel, guess, understand, remember
He could hear someone calling his name.
She could understand exactly how he felt.be able to - ability in the past on a specific occasion
We were able to find a nice little hotel.
Were you able to solve the puzzle?
Have you been able to find somewhere to stay?manage to - ability in the past on a specific occasion, especially when there was some difficulty involved
Despite the problems, they managed to complete the project on time.
Did you manage to fix the dripping tap?
potential ability - past
could have - potential ability in the past not fulfilled - it would have been possible, but didn't happen.
I could have come back yesterday, but decided to stay on for an extra day.
I could have told you that yesterday. (But you never asked me!)
lack of ability - past
could not / not be able to - negative ability in the past - general
She couldn't walk until she was two.
He wasn't able to ride a bike until he was ten.could not / not be able to / not manage to - negative ability in the past on a specific occasion
I couldn't find my keys.
She wasn't able to fix the car.
I'm afraid we didn't manage to find what you were looking for.
Permission and requests back to Contents
asking for permission
can - asking permission (informal)
Can I go now, please?could - asking permission (polite)
Could I ask a question, please?may - asking permission (rather formal - some people think this is more 'correct')
May I leave the table?might - asking permission (rather formal)
Might I have a word with you?
giving permission
can - giving permission
You can stay out late as long as you let us know where you are.may - giving permission (more formal - especially written)
Residents may park in the places provided.
No more than four children may enter this shop at one time.
refusing permission / prohibition
cannot - refusing permission
No, you can't stay up late to watch the movie.
Sorry, you can't park here.may not - refusing permission / prohibition (more formal - especially written)
Guests may not have pets in their rooms.
talking about general permission
be allowed to - talking about general permission in the present
Only students are allowed to borrow books from this library.
Are we allowed to smoke here?
Cyclists are not allowed on the motorway.
permission in the past
could / be allowed to - general permission in the present
I could have friends around whenever I liked.
We were allowed to go parties.be allowed to - a specific permission in the past
I wasn't allowed to touch the exhibit.
negative permission in the past
could not / not be allowed to - general permission in the past
I couldn't stay out all night.
We weren't allowed to make a lot of noise.not be allowed to - permission on a specific permission in the past
She wasn't allowed to go to the rock festival as she was only fourteen.
requests - 1. asking someone to do something
can / could - asking someone to do something
Can you help me with this, please?
Could you lend me your paper, please?will / would - asking someone to do something
Will you give this to your father, please.
Would you tell him I called?
requests - 2. asking someone for something or if you can do something
can / could / may /might -
Can I have some of those oranges, please
Could I try these on, please.
May I have some more coffee, please?
Might I have another of those delicious cakes?
Possibility and uncertainty back to Contents
possibility
can - general possibility
It can get really cold here in winter.
Can it be true?
How many people can fit into a Volkswagen Beetle?
may / might / could - present and future possibility
They may be coming tomorrow.
I might be a bit late
I could probably get off a bit earlier.
may / might / could - general and theoretical possibility
Some people may have difficulty understanding this concept.
Small children might find this story frightening.
There could be an answer.
may well /might well / could well - more likely possibility
That may well be the answer. You might well be right.
That could well work.
may just /might just / could just - less likely possibility
That may just be the answer. You might just be right.
That could just work.
could always - emphasising the possibility of something happening
They could always raise taxes without warning.
could always - combining possibility with implied suggestion
You could always talk to the boss.
uncertainty
might not / may not - negative future possibility
He might not come, of course.
She may not want to speak to you herself.
logical impossibility
cannot - negative possibility
That clock can't be right, surely?
past possiblity
could - general possibility in the past
In those days the police could stop you for any reason.
might have / could have - something that was possible in the past but didn't happen - often implies a criticism
You might have fallen.
We could have all been killed!
possibility
can - general possibility
It can get really cold here in winter.
Can it be true?
How many people can fit into a Volkswagen Beetle?may / might / could - present and future possibility
They may be coming tomorrow.
I might be a bit late
I could probably get off a bit earlier.may / might / could - general and theoretical possibility
Some people may have difficulty understanding this concept.
Small children might find this story frightening.
There could be an answer.may well /might well / could well - more likely possibility
That may well be the answer.You might well be right.
That could well work.may just /might just / could just - less likely possibility
That may just be the answer.You might just be right.
That could just work.could always - emphasising the possibility of something happening
They could always raise taxes without warning.could always - combining possibility with implied suggestion
You could always talk to the boss.
uncertainty
might not / may not - negative future possibility
He might not come, of course.
She may not want to speak to you herself.
logical impossibility
cannot - negative possibility
That clock can't be right, surely?
past possiblity
could - general possibility in the past
In those days the police could stop you for any reason.might have / could have - something that was possible in the past but didn't happen - often implies a criticism
You might have fallen.
We could have all been killed!
Probability & expectation back to Contents
expectations - things that are probably true
should / ought to - expectations (often with be)
There should be some milk in the fridge.
He should be here any minute now.
should / ought to - unfulfilled expectation (often with be)
There isn't any milk. But there should be. I bought some yesterday.
Shouldn't there be some instructions with it?
There ought to be some sort of switch.
making predictions based on what we expect
will (not) / would (not)
We'll probably be about an hour or so.
I'm sure he won't like it. It's just not his cup of tea.
He would love to hear from you, I'm sure.
shall (not) / should (not)
I shall be staying for a week or so.
We shan't
be long.
We shouldn't be back too late.
probability
be likely to - probability
He's likely to be late. He usually is.
be due to - future expectation
The government are due to make a statement tomorrow.
strong probability or certainty
must - certainty, even though the evidence suggests something different - we stress must here.
It must be there, I put it there earlier.
can't - certainty against the evidence
She can't be that old, surely!
bound to - strong probability
He's bound to make a good impression in that suit.
certain to / sure to - strong probability
City are certain to win the cup.
They're sure to win.
be to - expectation - quite formal, used especially in the media
The government are to announce new measures tomorrow.
due to - expectation
The government are due to make a statement tomorrow.
set to - expectation based on evidence
United are set to win the championship.
expectations - things that are probably true
should / ought to - expectations (often with be)
There should be some milk in the fridge.
He should be here any minute now.should / ought to - unfulfilled expectation (often with be)
There isn't any milk. But there should be. I bought some yesterday.
Shouldn't there be some instructions with it?
There ought to be some sort of switch.
making predictions based on what we expect
will (not) / would (not)
We'll probably be about an hour or so.
I'm sure he won't like it. It's just not his cup of tea.
He would love to hear from you, I'm sure.shall (not) / should (not)
I shall be staying for a week or so.
We shan't be long.
We shouldn't be back too late.
probability
be likely to - probability
He's likely to be late. He usually is.be due to - future expectation
The government are due to make a statement tomorrow.
strong probability or certainty
must - certainty, even though the evidence suggests something different - we stress must here.
It must be there, I put it there earlier.can't - certainty against the evidence
She can't be that old, surely!bound to - strong probability
He's bound to make a good impression in that suit.certain to / sure to - strong probability
City are certain to win the cup.
They're sure to win.be to - expectation - quite formal, used especially in the media
The government are to announce new measures tomorrow.due to - expectation
The government are due to make a statement tomorrow.set to - expectation based on evidence
United are set to win the championship.
Speculation & deduction back to Contents
speculating about the present and future
might be / may be / could be - speculating about the present and future
He might be stuck in a traffic jam.
She may be trying to contact us.
We could be lost.
might not / may not (but not could) - negative speculation about the present and future
She may not be able to hear you.
They might not be at home.
speculating about the past
might have / may have / could have - speculating about the past
He might have missed his train.
She may have done it already.
They could have forgotten about it.
might not have / may not have (but not could not have) - negative speculation about the past
He mightn't have heard you.
She may not have got our message.
deduction - making logical assumptions about the present
must be - logical deduction about the present
If they're not there they must be in the other drawer.
can't be - logical deduction (negative)
He can't be in Paris! I saw him this morning.
deduction - making logical assumptions about the past
must have - logical deduction about the past
We must have taken the wrong road.
can't have / couldn't have - logical deduction about the past (negative)
You can't have locked the door properly.
She couldn't have got my message.
speculating about the present and future
might be / may be / could be - speculating about the present and future
He might be stuck in a traffic jam.
She may be trying to contact us.
We could be lost.might not / may not (but not could) - negative speculation about the present and future
She may not be able to hear you.
They might not be at home.
speculating about the past
might have / may have / could have - speculating about the past
He might have missed his train.
She may have done it already.
They could have forgotten about it.might not have / may not have (but not could not have) - negative speculation about the past
He mightn't have heard you.
She may not have got our message.
deduction - making logical assumptions about the present
must be - logical deduction about the present
If they're not there they must be in the other drawer.can't be - logical deduction (negative)
He can't be in Paris! I saw him this morning.
deduction - making logical assumptions about the past
must have - logical deduction about the past
We must have taken the wrong road.can't have / couldn't have - logical deduction about the past (negative)
You can't have locked the door properly.
She couldn't have got my message.
Obligation & necessity back to Contents
obligation
must - internal or strong obligation in the present - the obligation usually comes from yourself or someone in authority - your parents, your boss etc, especially when they insist on something
I must remember to speak to him tomorrow.
You must tidy up your room immediately.
Must I really do it now? Can't I do it later?
must - strong obligation in instructions and notices
Drivers must pay attention to other traffic at all times.
Guests must vacate their rooms before midday.
have to / have got to - external specific obligation - we use have got to mostly in spoken English. In formal written English we use have to
She's got to be / She has to be at the station by seven.
We've got to / We have to finish this today.
have to - talking about general obligations which are usually external - we don't normally use have got to here.
I have to be at work at nine every day.
We have to separate the rubbish.
necessity
need to - necessity
You need to get a visa.
We need to get some more milk.
obligation or necessity with will
have to / need to - future obligation or necessity
We'll have to finish this later.
You'll need to tell me how you got on.
have to / need to - asking about future obligation or necessity
Will we have to get a taxi?.
We won't need to revise too much, will we?.
obligation not to / prohibition
cannot - prohibition
You can't park here.
must not - prohibition
Passengers must not distract the driver.
You mustn't go too near the railway.
lack of obligation or necessity
not have to - lack of obligation
We don't have to go to school today.
You won't have to ask permission, will you?
not need to - lack of necessity
You needn't come / don't need to come if you don't want to.
obligation and necessity in the past
We can't use must for past obligation or necessity, only have to or need to.
have to - general obligation in the past
In the past you had to have a radio licence.
Did people have to do military service at that time?
have to - personal obligation or necessity in the past
We had to book in advance.
Did you have to wait long?
need to - necessity in the past
We needed to pay by credit card.
Did you need to make an appointment?
lack of obligation or necessity in the past
not have to / not need to - lack of obligartion or necessity in the past which we knew about so didn't do
We didn't have to dress formally. (So we didn't).
They didn't need to pay in advance. (So they didn't)
not have to / not need to - lack of obligation or necessity in the past which we knew about but did anyway
We didn't really have to dress up, but we did anyway fot the fun of it.
They didn't need to pay in advance, but they preferred to do it anyway.
need not have - lack of necessity in the past which we didn't know about at the time (so we did whatever it was), and only later discover was unnecessary.
We needn't have left so early, we had plenty of time. (But we did leave early)
obligation
must - internal or strong obligation in the present - the obligation usually comes from yourself or someone in authority - your parents, your boss etc, especially when they insist on something
I must remember to speak to him tomorrow.
You must tidy up your room immediately.
Must I really do it now? Can't I do it later?must - strong obligation in instructions and notices
Drivers must pay attention to other traffic at all times.
Guests must vacate their rooms before midday.have to / have got to - external specific obligation - we use have got to mostly in spoken English. In formal written English we use have to
She's got to be / She has to be at the station by seven.
We've got to / We have to finish this today.have to - talking about general obligations which are usually external - we don't normally use have got to here.
I have to be at work at nine every day.
We have to separate the rubbish.
necessity
need to - necessity
You need to get a visa.
We need to get some more milk.
obligation or necessity with will
have to / need to - future obligation or necessity
We'll have to finish this later.
You'll need to tell me how you got on.have to / need to - asking about future obligation or necessity
Will we have to get a taxi?.
We won't need to revise too much, will we?.
obligation not to / prohibition
cannot - prohibition
You can't park here.must not - prohibition
Passengers must not distract the driver.
You mustn't go too near the railway.
lack of obligation or necessity
not have to - lack of obligation
We don't have to go to school today.
You won't have to ask permission, will you?not need to - lack of necessity
You needn't come / don't need to come if you don't want to.
obligation and necessity in the past
have to - general obligation in the past
In the past you had to have a radio licence.
Did people have to do military service at that time?have to - personal obligation or necessity in the past
We had to book in advance.
Did you have to wait long?need to - necessity in the past
We needed to pay by credit card.
Did you need to make an appointment?
lack of obligation or necessity in the past
not have to / not need to - lack of obligartion or necessity in the past which we knew about so didn't do
We didn't have to dress formally. (So we didn't).
They didn't need to pay in advance. (So they didn't)not have to / not need to - lack of obligation or necessity in the past which we knew about but did anyway
We didn't really have to dress up, but we did anyway fot the fun of it.
They didn't need to pay in advance, but they preferred to do it anyway.need not have - lack of necessity in the past which we didn't know about at the time (so we did whatever it was), and only later discover was unnecessary.
We needn't have left so early, we had plenty of time. (But we did leave early)
Advice & recommendation back to Contents
advice
should / ought to - giving advice
You should take more exercise.
You ought to get out more.
You shouldn't talk to him like that.
She oughtn't (to) take it seriously.shall / should - asking for advice or confirmation
Shall / Should I put these things down here?
What shall I do?
Where should I go?should have /ought to have - advice after the fact
You should have asked my advice before you decided.
You ought to have booked earlier.would - giving advice
I'd accept his offer, if I were you.
I wouldn't do it myself, personally.I should - giving advice (British English)
I should take the job, if I were in your shoes.
I should't worry about it too much, if I were you.had better - stronger or more urgent advice than should or ought to (including to ourselves)
You'd better let him know right away.
I'd better have another look at this report.must - strong advice
You must listen to what the doctor says.
recommendation
should /ought to - recommendation
You should try that new restaurant.
You really ought to see the new exhibition, it's greatmust - strong recommendation
You really must see this new film.
Offers & suggestions back to Contents
offers
Could and should are more tentative than can and shall.
can / could - offers
Can I carry that for you?
I could carry that for you, if you like.
shall - offers
Shall I make you another cup of tea?
may - polite offers
May I help you?
will - offers
I'll give you a lift to the station.
would you like
Would you like me to take that for you?
suggestions
could - making a suggestion
You could try asking Jim.
shall - making and asking for suggestions
Shall we take a taxi?
What shall I do with these boxes?
should - making a suggestion - usually used in negative questions, and asking for suggestions
Shouldn't we be going? It's getting quite late.
Where should I put the vegetables?
might - making a suggestion
You might want to check your spelling.
offers
can / could - offers
Can I carry that for you?
I could carry that for you, if you like.shall - offers
Shall I make you another cup of tea?may - polite offers
May I help you?will - offers
I'll give you a lift to the station.would you like
Would you like me to take that for you?
suggestions
could - making a suggestion
You could try asking Jim.shall - making and asking for suggestions
Shall we take a taxi?
What shall I do with these boxes?should - making a suggestion - usually used in negative questions, and asking for suggestions
Shouldn't we be going? It's getting quite late.
Where should I put the vegetables?might - making a suggestion
You might want to check your spelling.
Willingness and refusal back to Contents
willingness in the present and future
will - willingness
She'll help you, I'm sure.will / would - polite instructions and requests
If you'll just follow me.
Would you hold this for me, please?be willing to - willingness
I'm perfectly willing to go with you.
refusal or unwillngness
will not - refusal or unwillingless
No, I won't help you.
He just will not so what he is told.
This door won't open.not be willing to - refusal or unwillingness
He's not willing to change the arrangements
They won't be willing to help.
willingness in the past
would - general willingness in the past (related to past habit)
He would always do as I asked.be willing to - general willingness in the past (use would for specific occasions)
She was always willing to give me a hand.
refusal or unwillingness in the past
would not - refusal in the past - general and specific
He would never lift a finger around the house.
The car wouldn't start again.not be willing to - refusal or unwillingness - general or specific
He was never willing to tell you exactly what he thought.
She wasn't willing to postpone the meeting.
Habit and behaviour thought typical back to Contents
habit in the present
will - general habit
He'll always buy her flowers for their anniversary.
habit in the past
would - for past habits but not past states
I would walk to work every day.
She would always bring us presents when she came to visit.
He would wander around absent-mindedly as if in a dream.used to - past habits or states that's not true today
She used to live in London, but now lives in New York.
I used to take the metro to work, but now I cycle.
typical behaviour
will - commenting on typical behaviour (often showing annoyance), often with keep
He will keep asking me these stupid questions.
You will keep interrupting me!
Well, if you will keep turning up late, what do you expect?would - commenting on something someone has done which is seen as typical of their behaviour (often showing mild annoyance or criticism)
Well, she would say that, would't she! That's just typical of her.
He would turn up just as we were about to leave.
You would have to say that to his face, wouldn't you?
Annoyance and criticism back to Contents
expressing annoyance and criticism about the present
can - expressing annoyance
He can be so annoying at times!could - expressing annoyance when someone doesn't do something
You could call me once in a while!might - expressing annoyance when someone doesn't do something
He might let me know when he's going to be late!have to / must - used in questions - must is stronger
Do you have to make so much noise?
Must we go through all this again?will - expressing annoyance about typical behaviour
She will just totally ignore everything I say.
You will make those horrible noises while I'm trying to read.would - expressing annoyance (also commenting on typical behaviour)
Well, she would say that, would't she! That's just typical of her.
To tidy up once in a while. Would that be asking too much?
expressing annoyance and criticism about the past
could have / might have - critical comment
You could have had an accident.
We might have all been killed.could have / might have - expressing annoyance
You might have told me earlier.
She could have sent us a not, at least.should have / ought to have - expressing annoyance or criticism
You should have taken my advice.
They ought to have done something about it by now!
You should have handed in your essay last week.would not have - expressing annoyance
It wouldn't have hurt her to visit us now and then.
2. Modal and other verbs with a similar function
Full modals
can back to Contents
ability in the present
She can sing really well.ability in the future (when we decide now)
I can do it next week.ability right now
Look! I can swim!possibility
It can get quite cold at this time of year.
Can it really be true?asking permission
Can I go now, please?giving permission
You can stay out late as long as you phone us.offers
Can I carry that for you?requests
Can you help me with this, please?
cannot
negative ability in the present and in future
He can't swim at all.
She can't come next weekend after all.negative possibility
That can't be the time alreadyprohibition
Sorry, but you can't park there.deduction
That can't be him already.refusing permission
No, you can't stay up late to watch the movie.
can't have
negative deduction about the past
He can't have been there. He was in Paris.
could back to Contents
general ability in the past
He could speak French like a nativepossibility
I could probably get off a bit earlier.polite requests
Could you hold this for me, please?asking permission
Could I borrow the car this afternoon?offers
I could carry that for you, if you like.making a suggestion
You could try asking Jim.speculation
There's someone at the door. It could be Peter from next door.expressing annoyance
You could have called!
could not
negative ability in the past - general and on a specific occasion
She couldn't walk until she was two.
I couldn't find my keys.negative ability in the present
I couldn't walk another hundred metres.prohibition in the past
When we were children we couldn't leave the table without permission.
could be + -ing
present possibility, perhaps suggesting advice
You could be doing your homework now.speculation about the present
She could be doing it right now.
could have
speculating about past possibility
She could have missed her train.critical comment or expressing annoyance
You could have had an accident.
He could have told me he was going to be late!
could not have
past impossibility
I couldn't have gone faster if I'd tried.deducing that something didn't happen
She couldn't have got my letter.
could have been + -ing
making a comment about an activity not done in the past
You could have been doing your homework while you were waiting for Pete to come round.
may & might (not)back to Contents
possibility
They may be coming tomorrow.
I might be a bit late
She may / might not come at all.asking permission (rather formal)
May I leave the table?
Might I be excused? (even more formal)polite requests (rather formal)
May I have some more cake?
Might I have another of those delicious cakes? (even more formal)
may (but not might)
giving and refusing permission
You may leave the table now.
No, you may not stay out until all hours of the night!polite offers
May I help you?
might (but not may)
past of may in reported speech
She said she might be a bit late.
The told us they might not be here befote ten.expressing annoyance
He might let me know he's going to be late!suggestions
You might want to check your spelling.
may / might be + -ing
speculating about the present and future
He might be working on it as we speak.
She may be coming tomorrow.
may / might have
speculating about past possibility
She may / might have done it already.
They may /might not have heard you.
might have (but not may have)
expressing annoyance
You might have told me earlier
may / might have been + -ing
speculating about a past activity
She may / might have been doing it when we phoned.
may / might (not) (have) for concession
making one point while conceding another
He may / might be very intelligent, but he doesn't seem to have a lot of common sense.making one point while conceding another
They may / might not be rich, but they certainly know how to enjoy themselves.making one point while conceding another
It may / might well have been her idea, but it was me who did all the work.
must back to Contents
internal or strong obligation in the present
You must tidy up your room immediately.
I must speak to him tomorrow.necessity
You must turn it on first.speculation or deduction about the present
He must be about forty, I would think.strong recommendation
You really must see this new film.expressing annoyance (in questions)
Must you make so much noise while I'm on the phone?
must not
prohibition
You mustn't touch that, it's very hot.strong advice
You mustn't worry. I'm sure everything will work out OK.
must be + -ing
making a deduction about a present or future activity
He's making a lot of noise. He must be making something.
She's not doing it today, so she must be doing it tomorrow.
must have
making a deduction about past probability
He must have missed the train.
I must have left my mobile at home.
must (not) have
talking about necessity
You must have worked here for at least six months before you are entitled to holiday leave.
You mustn't have been late more than tree times or they deduct it from your pay.
must have been + -ing
making a deduction about a past activity
There were clothes everywhere. She must have been doing the ironing.
shall - with I and weback to Contents
suggestions
Shall we take a taxi?offers
Shall I make you another cup of tea?asking for advice or suggestion
What shall we do next?question tag after let's and after will for offers
Let's have a look at your sore knee, shall we?
I'll do that, shall I?instead of will in 1st person (British English - apparently a bit old fashioned, but I use it from time to time) - for predictions, intentions etc
I shall tell him tomorrow.
We shall just have to see, won't we?
I shall tell you what I've decided tomorrow.
shall be doing and shall have done - with I and we
other future tenses
We shall be staying with our grandparents (= future continuous)
We shan't be staying long.
I shall have finished it by tomorrow. (= future perfect)
If it's successful, we shan't have been doing all this work in vain. (= future perfect continuous)
shall - for other persons
in legal and official or formal language
The tenant shall pay rent monthly, one month in advance
Candidates shall stop writing immediately I tell them to.
should (& ought to) back to Contents
- when should and ought to are interchangable. This is the more common category.
- when should has special meanings which can't be expressed by ought to. These are less common, and more associated with British English.
should / ought to
recommendations
You should try that new restaurant.
You really ought to see the new exhibition, it's great.making a suggestion - usually used in negative questions
Shouldn't we be going?
Oughtn't we say Goodbye?advice
You should take more exercise
You ought to get out more
should be / ought to be + -ing
saying what is supposed to be happening
You should be writing that report I gave you to do.speculating what is happening
He should be sitting at home by now.
should have / ought to have
comment on past action
You should have told me earlier.
You shouldn't have spoken to him like that.
You ought to have have seen his face when he found out.making a suggestion about a past action - usually used in negative questions
Shouldn't we have told them about it?
Oughtn't we to have shut the gate?
should have been / ought to have been + -ing
commenting on what was supposed to have been happening but didn't
She should have been studying instead of gallivanting round town.
You ought to have been paying more attention.
Other uses of should
As the past of shall
In reported speech:
She asked if we should get a taxi.
In some that clauses:
in that clauses after certain verbs expressing importance
She insisted that I should be at the meeting
He recommended that we should consult a specialist.in that clauses after certain adjectives expressing importance
It is vital that the work should be finished by the end of the week.
It is essential that she should give me an answer today.
It is essential that she give me an answer today..
In informal British English, standard verb forms are often used:
It is essential that she gives me an answer today.
In that clauses expressing surprise or personal reaction
It's surprising that she should have behaved like that.
I'm sorry that you should think I'd do a thing like that.
I'm sorry that you would think I'd do a thing like that..
In conditionals
Making first conditionals and time clauses more tentative. (This can be inverted)
If you should happen to see him, could you give him this?
Should I see him later, I'll tell him what you said.
In case you should get lost, here's our number.
Instead of would in the first person
giving advice
I shouldn't go in just yet, if I were you.describing what you would do in certain circumstances (formal)
If he spoke to me like that again, I should just walk out.in polite requests (quite formal)
I should like to go now, if you don't mind.
We should be grateful if you could give us a reply by the end of the week.giving an opinion about things you're not totally certain of
I should think this will be enough for all of us.
Will we be there in time for tea? - I should think so.
You won't be very late, will you? - I shouldn't think so, no.
To express annoyance, surprise
after how, why, who etc to express irritation, annoyance or surprise
How should I know where he is?
Why should I lift a finger to help him after what he did?
Who should I see in town but your ex!
will back to Contents
stating future facts
This shop will be closed tomorrow for stocktaking.expressing future intentions just decided on
I'll ask her tomorrow.predictions about the future
It'll probably rain later
Do you think you'll be late?
I'm sure she won't do anything silly.
personal decisions made at the time of speaking
I think I'll have another coffee.
We're running a bit late. I'll ring for a taxi.
I won't have any more, thanks.stating facts
This car will only run on unleaded petrolpredictions about the present
That'll be him at the door now.stating inherent ability - somewhere between a fact and a prediction
This will last us to the evening.requests
Will you give this to your father, please?offers
I'll give you a lift to the station if you like.asking and agreeing to do something
Next time you see him will you tell him I was asking for him?
OK. I'll tell him when I see him tomorrow.willingness
She'll help you, I'm sure.habitual actions
She'll always greet you with a smile.annoying habits (often with keep)
He will keep talking all through the film. It's so annoying.making orders and instructions softer, especially with have to and need to - a form of distancing
I’m afraid you’ll need to rewrite this report. (eg your boss)
I’ll have to ask you to come with me, Sir. (eg Customs official)
That will be £20, please. (eg shop assistant, saying what is owed)obligation and orders
All pupils will assemble in the main hall immediately.
will not / won't
refusal
No, I won't help you.
He just will not do what he is told.
This photocopier won't work.
will be + -ing
future continuous to talk about an expected future event
I'll be arriving at about eight.
will have + pp
future perfect to predict events being completed by a time in the future
She'll have finished it by Thursday.making logical predictions about the present or recent past
She won't have arrived yet.
Give them a ring. They'll have finished their dinner by now.
will have been + -ing
future perfect continuous to talk about how long activities will have lasted by a time in the future
If a bus doesn't come soon I'll have been waiting for half-an-hour.
would back to Contents
polite requests
Would you hold this for me, please.giving advice
I'd accept his offer, if I were you.
I wouldn't do it myself, personally.conditional willingness
If you told me what the problem was, I would be able to help.expressing annoyance (also commenting on typical behaviour)
Well, she would say that, would't she! That's just typical of her.for past habits but not past states
I would walk to work every day.
She would always bring us presents when she came to visit.general willingness in the past (related to past habit)
He would always do as I asked.as the past of will in reported speech
He said he would be a bit late.future in the past
This was the man who would one day become her husband.
would not / wouldn't
refusal in the past
He would never lift a finger around the house.
The car wouldn't start again.
would be + -ing
conditional willingness in the present
I'd be doing it now if I had the right tools.
I wouldn't be working here now if I hadn't done well at university.
would have + pp
conditional willingness in the past
I would have known if I'd met him before.
She would never have come if we hadn't offered her a big increase in salary.
would have been + -ing
conditional willingness starting in the past
I would have been doing it now if you hadn't asked me to do something else.
Semi-modals plus
have to / have got to back to Contents
external obligation - general rules
I have to be at work at nine every day.
We have to separate the rubbish.external obligation - specific occasion
I have to go / I've got to go to the dentist's this afternoon.
We have to / We've got to be there at eight.past and future obligation
She had to leave early.
We'll have to leave early
not have to / haven't got to
lack of obligation - present
We don't have to go to school today,
I haven't got to do it after all.lack of obligation - past and future
She didn't have to sit the exam.
You won't have to ask permission, will you?expressing annoyance (in questions)
Do we have to watch this film; it's so boring?
used to back to Contents
past habit or state that's not true today
She used to live in London, but now lives in New York.
I used to take the metro to work, but now I cycle.question form (without -d)
Did you use to live somewhere else?
Didn't you use to have longer hair?negative form (without -d)
She didn't use to be as rude as she is now.
- Used she to sing as well as she does now?
He used not (usedn't) to care so much about his appearance.
Used they not (Usedn't they) to live in Barchester?
need to back to Contents
necessity
You need to get a visa.
We need to get some more milk.necessity - questions
Do we need to get any food? (normal form)
Need we really go so early? (modal form)
not need to / need not
lack of necessity or obligation in the present and future
You don't need to come if you don't want to. (normal form)
You needn't do it if you don't want to. (modal form)
did not need to / need not have
lack of obligation in the past - known
We didn't need to book a table, so we didn't bother.
We didn't really need to book a table, but we did anyway.lack of obligation in the past - unknown
We needn't have rushed. There are plenty of seats left.
Oh you needn't have come to pick me up. I could easily have got a taxi.
dare back to Contents
as a normal (non-modal) verb, with the pattern verb + obj + to-infinitive
I dare you to tell him.as a modal in negatives
I don't dare ask him again. (normal form)
I daren't ask him again. (modal form)
She dared not tell anyone about it. (literary or formal)as a modal in certain idioms
Don't you dare tell him!
How dare he talk to me like that?
I dare say you're right. (especially British English)
semi-auxiliaries
be going to back to Contents
for plans and intentions - very common in spoken language
I'm going to get my hair cut tomorrow
Do you think she's going to apply for that new job?
They're going to build a new playground in the park.for predictions based on evidence
Look at the way he's driving. He's going to have an accident if he's not careful
Look at the time. We're going to be late if we don't get a move on.
was / were going to
in reported speech
She asked if you were going to visit her soon.future in the past
I was going to do it but I didn't have time.
be to back to Contents
obligation - instructions
All students are to gather at the meeting place.obligation - relaying instructions
We're to tidy up after us.obligation - expectations (in newspaper reports)
The government are to announce new regulations tomorrow
be able to back to Contents
present ability
She's able to dress herself now.ability in the past - general and on a specific occasion
I was able to read before I went to primary school.
We were able to find a nice little hotel.future ability
Will you be able to come to our party?
be allowed to back to Contents
permission
Are we allowed to smoke here?general and specific permission in the past
We weren't allowed to smoke at school.
I wasn't allowed to touch the exhibit.
be supposed / meant to back to Contents
intended obligation
We're supposed to tidy up after us.intended obligation
He's meant to be in a meeting.
intended obligation in the past
She was supposed to finish it last week, but I haven't seen anything yet.
We were supposed to be there ten minutes ago.intended obligation
He was to meant to be phoning me, but I haven't heard anything from him.
be willing to back to Contents
willingness
I'm perfectly willing to go with you.
I'm afraid I'm not willing to discuss this any futher.
be + adjective + to back to Contents
bound to - strong probability
He's bound to wincertain to / sure to - strong probability
They're certain to win
They're sure to winlikely to - probability
He's likely to be late. He usually is.due to - future expectation
They're due to close this station next year.
The train is due to arrive any moment.set to - probability based on past evidence - often used in the media
They're set to win the championship
had better back to Contents
giving strong advice (including to ourselves)
You'd better let him know as soon as possible.
I'd better get a move on, it's getting late.making a suggestion
We'd better book early before it gets sold out.
Hadn't we better take a closer look at this?
Related posts
Links
- Encyclopaedia.com - from the Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language - very interesting but a bit technical
- Wikipedia
- Grammar.About
- NICE - UCL
- Gramarring
Hello teacher. There are three words "would" in the sentene below. So, how does that work? This is an answer of the use of "the".
ReplyDeleteIt WOULD be unnatural to ask about a dog's name before knowing which dog is being referred to. The speaker and listeners WOULD already know which dog is meant, so the dog is correct. This dog WOULD normally be a dog nearby, or at least visible; or it could be a dog in a photo.
First, sorry for the delay in answering, and what a question! Incidentally, another teacher has had a go at answering it at the WordReference Forum. You could also have a look at my post on would.
ReplyDeleteSo here goes. I would suggest that all three are being implied 2nd conditionals. Let's rephrase it as a couple of conditional sentences:
"If you asked about a dog's name before knowing which dog is being referred, to it would be unnatural. Because if you asked about the dog's name, the speaker and listeners would already know which dog is meant, and this would normally be a dog nearby"
There are other possible interpretations. We sometimes use would for speculating, talking about people's behaviour or past customs ot habits. But I think the implied conditional is the easiest way to explain this one.